American Journal of Preventive Medicine
Volume 36, Issue 4, Supplement , Pages S124-S133 , April 2009

Measures of the Food Environment: A Compilation of the Literature, 1990–2007

  • Robin A. McKinnon, PhD, MPA

      Affiliations

    • National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland
    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress correspondence and reprint requests to: Robin A. McKinnon, PhD, MPA, National Cancer Institute, 6130 Executive Boulevard EPN 4028, MSC 7344, Bethesda MD 20892
    • ,
  • Jill Reedy, PhD, MPH

      Affiliations

    • National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland
    • ,
  • Meredith A. Morrissette, MPH

      Affiliations

    • National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Maryland
    • ,
  • Leslie A. Lytle, PhD

      Affiliations

    • Department of Epidemiology and Community Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
    • ,
  • Amy L. Yaroch, PhD

      Affiliations

    • National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland

References 

  1. Lytle LA. Measuring the food environment: state of the science. Am J Prev Med. 2009;36(4S):S134–S144
  2. Glanz K, Sallis JF, Saelens BE, Frank LD. Healthy nutrition environments: concepts and measures. Am J Health Promot. 2005;19:330–333
  3. Bryant M, Stevens J. Measurement of food availability in the home. Nutr Rev. 2006;64:67–76
  4. Ammerman AS, Ward DS, Benjamin SE, et al. An intervention to promote healthy weight: nutrition and physical activity self-assessment for child care (NAP SACC) theory and design. Prev Chronic Dis. 2007;4:A67
  5. Benjamin SE, Ammerman A, Sommers J, Dodds J, Neelon B, Ward DS. Nutrition and physical activity self-assessment for child care (NAP SACC): results from a pilot intervention. J Nutr Educ Behav. 2007;39:142–149
  6. Brener ND, Pejavara A, Barrios LC, et al. Applying the school health index to a nationally representative sample of schools. J Sch Health. 2006;72:57–66
  7. Burns C, Gibbon P, Boak R, Baudinetta S, Dunbar JA. Food cost and availability in a rural setting. Rural Remote Health. 2004;4:311
  8. Cheadle A, Psaty BM, Wagner E, et al. Evaluating community-based nutrition programs: assessing the reliability of a survey of grocery store product displays. Am J Public Health. 1990;80:709–711
  9. Cheadle A, Psaty BM, Curry S, et al. Community-level comparisons between the grocery store environment and individual dietary patterns. Prev Med. 1991;20:250–261
  10. Cheadle A, Psaty BM, Curry S, et al. Can measures of the grocery store environment be used to track community-level dietary changes?. Prev Med. 1993;22:361–372
  11. Davee AM, Whatley Blum JE, Devore RL, et al. The vending and a la carte policy intervention in Maine public high schools. Prev Chronic Dis. 2005;2:Spec no:A14
  12. Donkin AJ, Dowler EA, Stevenson SJ, Turner SA. Mapping access to food at a local level. Br Food J. 1999;101:554–564
  13. Fisher B, Golaszewski T, Barr D. Measuring worksite resources for employee heart health. Am J Health Promot. 1999;13:325–332
  14. Glanz K, Kristal AR, Sorensen G, Palombo R, Heimendinger J, Probart C. Development and validation of measures of psychosocial factors influencing fat- and fiber-related dietary behavior. Prev Med. 1993;22:373–387
  15. Golaszewski T, Blodgett C, Barr D, Delprino R. Development and preliminary testing of an organizational heart health support assessment. J Health Educ. 1996;27:25–29
  16. Golaszewski T, Barr D, Blodgett C, Delprino R. Continued development of an organizational heart-health assessment. Worksite Health. 1996;Spring:32–35
  17. Jones SE, Brener ND, McManus T. Prevalence of school policies, programs, and facilities that promote a healthy school environment. Am J Public Health. 2003;93:1570–1575
  18. Pearlman DN, Dowling E, Bayuk C, Cullinen K, Thacher AK. From concept to practice: using the school health index to create healthy school environments in Rhode Island elementary schools. Prev Chronic Dis. 2005;2:Spec no:A09
  19. Small ML, Jones SE, Barrios LC, et al. School policy and environment: results from the School Health Policies and Programs Study 2000. J Sch Health. 2001;71:325–334
  20. Snyder M, Anlinker J, Cunningham-Sabo L, et al. The pathways study: a model for lowering the fat in school meals. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;69S:810S–815S
  21. Andrews M, Kantor LS, Lino M, Ripplinger D. Using USDA's thrifty food plan to assess food availability and affordability. Food Rev. 2001;24:45–53
  22. Apparicio P, Cloutier M, Shearmur R. The case of Montreal's missing food deserts: evaluation of accessibility to food supermarkets. Intl J Health Geogr. 2007;6:4
  23. Abarca J, Ramachandran S. Using community indicators to assess nutrition in Arizona-Mexico border communities. Prev Chronic Dis. 2005;2:A06
  24. Algert SJ, Agrawal A, Lewis DS. Disparities in access to fresh produce in low-income neighborhoods in Los Angeles. Am J Prev Med. 2006;30:365–370
  25. Alwitt LF, Donley TD. Retail stores in poor urban neighbourhoods. J Consum Aff. 1997;31:139–164
  26. Austin SB, Melly MS, Sanchez BN, Patel A, Buka S, Gortmaker SL. Clustering of fast-food restaurants around schools: a novel application of spatial statistics to the study of food environments. Am J Public Health. 2005;95:1575–1581
  27. Ball K, Crawford D, Mishra G. Socioeconomic inequalities in women's fruit and vegetable intakes: a multi-level study of individual, social and environmental mediators. Public Health Nutr. 2006;9:623–630
  28. Barratt J. The cost and availability of healthy food choices in southern Derbyshire. J Hum Nutr Diet. 1997;10:63–69
  29. Bartholomew JB, Jowers EM. Increasing frequency of lower-fat entrees offered at school lunch: an environmental change strategy to increase healthful selections. J Am Diet Assoc. 2006;106:248–252
  30. Bell J, Burlin BM. In urban areas: many of the poor still pay more for food. J Public Policy Mark. 1993;12:268–275
  31. Benjamin SE, Neelon B, Ball SC, Bangdiwala SI, Ammerman AS, Ward DS. Reliability and validity of a nutrition and physical activity environmental self-assessment for child care. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2007;4:29
  32. Biener L, Glanz K, McLerran D, et al. Impact of the working well trial on the worksite smoking and nutrition environment. Health Educ Behav. 1999;26:478–494
  33. Block D, Kouba J. A comparison of the availability and affordability of a market basket in two communities in the Chicago area. Public Health Nutr. 2006;9:837–845
  34. Block JP, Scribner RA, DeSalvo KB. Fast food, race/ethnicity, and income: a geographic analysis. Am J Prev Med. 2004;27:211–217
  35. Boehmer TK, Lovegreen SL, Haire-Joshu D, Brownson RC. What constitutes an obesogenic environment in rural communities?. Am J Health Promot. 2006;20:411–421
  36. Burdette HL, Whitaker RC. Neighborhood playgrounds, fast food restaurants, and crime: relationships to overweight in low-income preschool children. Prev Med. 2004;38:57–63
  37. Carter MA, Swinburn B. Measuring the ‘obesogenic’ food environment in New Zealand primary schools. Health Promot Int. 2004;19:15–20
  38. Cassady D, Houseman R, Dagher C. Measuring cues for healthy choices on restaurant menus: development and testing of a measurement instrument. Am J Health Promot. 2004;18:444–449
  39. Cheadle A, Psaty BM, Diehr P, et al. Evaluating community-based nutrition programs: comparing grocery store and individual-level survey measures of program impact. Prev Med. 1995;24:71–79
  40. Chung C, Myers SL. Do the poor pay more for food? (An analysis of grocery store availability and food price disparities). J Consum Aff. 1999;33:276–296
  41. Clarke G, Eyre H, Guy C. Deriving indicators of access to food retail provision in British cities: studies of Cardiff, Leeds and Bradford. Urban Stud. 2002;39:2041–2060
  42. Crawford PB, Gosliner W, Strode P, et al. Walking the talk: Fit WIC wellness programs improve self-efficacy in pediatric obesity prevention counseling. Am J Public Health. 2004;94:1480–1485
  43. Crockett EG, Clancy KL, Bowering J. Comparing the cost of a thrifty food plan market basket in three areas of New York state. J Nutr Educ. 1992;24:71S–78S
  44. Cullen K, Hartstein J, Reynolds KD, et al. Exploring changes in middle-school student lunch consumption after local school food service policy modifications. Public Health Nutr. 2006;9:814–820
  45. Cullen K, Hartstein J, Reynolds KD, et al. Improving the school food environment: results from a pilot study in middle schools. J Am Diet Assoc. 2007;107:484–489
  46. Cullen KW, Thompson DL. Texas school food policy changes related to middle school a la carte/snack bar foods: potential savings in kilocalories. J Am Diet Assoc. 2005;105:1952–1954
  47. Cummins S, Macintyre S. A systematic study of an urban foodscape: the price and availability of food in greater Glasgow. Urban Stud. 2002;39:2115–2130
  48. Cummins S, McKay L, Macintyre S. McDonalds restaurants and neighborhood deprivation in Scotland and England. Am J Prev Med. 2005;29:308–310
  49. Cummins S, Findlay A, Petticrew M, Sparks L. Healthy cities: the impact of food retail led regeneration on food access, choice and retail structure. Built Environ. 2005;31:288–301
  50. Cummins S, Macintyre S. The location of food stores in urban areas: a case study in Glasgow. Br Food J. 1999;101:545–553
  51. Den Hond EM, Lesaffre EE, Kesteloot HE. Regional differences in consumption of 103 fat products in Belgium: a supermarket-chain approach. J American Coll Nutr. 1995;14:621–627
  52. Dibsdall LS, Lambert N, Bobbin RF, Frewer LJ. Low-income consumers' attitudes and behaviour towards access, availability and motivation to eat fruit and vegetables. Public Health Nutr. 2003;6:159–168
  53. Donkin AJ, Dowler EA, Stevenson SJ, Turner SA. Mapping access to food in a deprived area; the development of price and availability indices. Public Health Nutr. 2000;3:31–38
  54. Echeverria SE, Diez-Roux AV, Link BG. Reliability of self-reported neighborhood characteristics. J Urban Health. 2004;81:682–701
  55. Edmonds J, Baranowski T, Baranowski J, Cullen KW, Myres D. Ecological and socioeconomic correlates of fruit, juice, and vegetable consumption among African-American boys. Prev Med. 2001;32:476–481
  56. Fisher BD, Strogatz DS. Community measures of low-fat milk consumption: comparing store shelves with households. Am J Public Health. 1999;89:235–237
  57. French SA, Jeffery RW, Story M, Hannan P, Snyder MP. A pricing strategy to promote low-fat snack choices through vending machines. Am J Public Health. 1997;87:849–851
  58. French SA, Story M, Jeffery RW, et al. Pricing strategy to promote fruit and vegetable purchase in high school cafeterias. J Am Diet Assoc. 1997;97:1008–1010
  59. French SA, Jeffery RW, Story M, et al. Pricing and promotion effects on low-fat vending snack purchases: the CHIPS Study. Am J Public Health. 2001;91:112–117
  60. French SA, Story M, Fulkerson JA. School food policies and practices: a state-wide survey of secondary school principals. J Am Diet Assoc. 2002;102:1785–1789
  61. French SA, Story M, Fulkerson JA, Faricy Gerlach A. Food environment in secondary schools: a la carte, vending machines, and food policies and practices. Am J Public Health. 2003;93:1161–1167
  62. French SA, Story M, Fulkerson JA, Hannan P. An environmental intervention to promote lower-fat choices in secondary school: outcomes of the TACOS Study. Am J Public Health. 2004;94:1507–1512
  63. Furey S, Strugnell C, McIlveen H. An investigation of the potential existence of ”food deserts” in rural and urban areas of Northern Ireland. Agric Human Values. 2001;18:447–457
  64. Furey S, Farley H, Strugnell C. An investigation into the availability and economic accessibility of food items in rural and urban areas of Northern Ireland. Int J Consum Stud. 2002;26:313–321
  65. Giskes K, Van Lenthe FJ, Brug J, Mackenbach JP, Turrell G. Socioeconomic inequalities in food purchasing: the contribution of respondent-perceived and actual (objectively measured) price and availability of foods. Prev Med. 2007;45:41–48
  66. Glanz K, Sallis JF, Saelens BE, Frank LD. Nutrition environment measures survey in stores (NEMS_S). Am J Prev Med. 2007;32:282–289
  67. Golaszewski T, Fisher B. Heart check: the development and evolution of an organizational heart health assessment. Am J Health Promot. 2002;17:132–153
  68. Guy CM. Urban and rural contrasts in food prices and availability—a case study in Wales. J Rural Stud. 1991;7:311–325
  69. Guy CM, Clarke G, Eyre H. Food retail change and the growth of “food deserts”: a case study of Cardiff. Int J Retail Distrib Manage. 2004;32:72–88
  70. Guy CM, David G. Measuring physical access to ‘healthy foods’ in areas of social deprivation: a case study in Cardiff. Int J Consum Stud. 2004;28:222–234
  71. Hamdan A, Story M, French SA, Fulkerson JA, Nelson H. Perceptions of adolescents involved in promoting lower-fat foods in schools: associations with level of involvement. J Am Diet Assoc. 2005;105:247–251
  72. Hannan P, French SA, Story M, Fulkerson JA. A pricing strategy to promote sales of lower fat foods in high school cafeterias: accessibility and sensitivity analysis. Am J Health Promot. 2002;17:1–6
  73. Harnack L, Snyder P, Story M, Holliday R, Lytle L, Neumark-Sztainer D. Availability of a la carte food items in junior and senior high schools: a needs assessment. J Am Diet Assoc. 2000;100:701–703
  74. Harrison MS, Coyne T, Lee AJ, et al. The increasing cost of the basic foods required to promote health in Queensland. Med J Aust. 2007;186:9–14
  75. Hayes LR. Are prices higher for the poor in New York City?. J Consum Policy. 2000;23:127–152
  76. Helling A, Sawicki DS. Race and residential accessibility to shopping and services. Housing Policy Debate. 2003;14(1&2):69–101
  77. Hendrickson D, Smith C, Eikenberry N. Fruit and vegetable access in four low-income food deserts communities in Minnesota. Agric Human Values. 2006;23:371–383
  78. Hoerr SM, Louden VA. Can nutrition information increase sales of healthful vended snacks?. J Sch Health. 1993;63:386–390
  79. Horowitz CR, Colson KA, Hebert PL, Lancaster K. Barriers to buying healthy foods for people with diabetes: evidence of environmental disparities. Am J Public Health. 2004;94:1549–1554
  80. Hosler AS, Varadarajulu D, Ronsani AE, Frederick BL, Fisher BD. Low-fat milk and high-fiber bread availability in food stores in urban and rural communities. J Public Health Manag Pract. 2006;12:556–562
  81. Inagami S, Cohen DA, Finch BK, Asch SM. You are where you shop: grocery store locations, weight and neighborhoods. Am J Prev Med. 2006;31:10–17
  82. Jago R, Baranowski T, Harris M. Relationships between GIS environmental features and adolescent male physical activity: GIS coding differences. J Phys Act Health. 2006;3:230–242
  83. Jeffery RW, French SA, Raether C, Baxter JE. An environmental intervention to increase fruit and salad purchases in a cafeteria. Prev Med. 1994;23:788–792
  84. Jeffery R, Baxter JE, McGuire M, Linde J. Are fast food restaurants an environmental risk factor for obesity?. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2006;3:2
  85. Jetter KM, Cassady DL. The availability and cost of healthier food alternatives. Am J Prev Med. 2006;30:38–44
  86. Kaufman PR. Rural poor have less access to supermarkets, large grocery stores. Rural Dev Perspect. 1999;13:19–26
  87. Kipke MD, Iverson E, Moore D, et al. Food and park environments: neighborhood-level risks for childhood obesity in East Los Angeles. J Adolesc Health. 2007;40:325–333
  88. Kubik MY, Lytle LA, Hannan PJ, Story M, Perry CL. Food-related beliefs, eating behavior, and classroom food practices of middle school teachers. J Sch Health. 2002;72:339–345
  89. Kubik M, Lytle LA, Hannan PJ, Perry CL, Story M. The association of the school food environment with dietary behaviors of young adolescents. Am J Public Health. 2003;93:1168–1173
  90. Kubik M, Lytle LA, Story M. Soft drinks, candy, and fast food: what parents and teachers think about the middle school environment. J Am Diet Assoc. 2005;105:233–239
  91. Kubik M, Lytle LA, Story M. Schoolwide food practices are associated with body mass index in middle school students. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2005;159:1111–1114
  92. Laraia BA, Siega-Riz AM, Kaufmann JS, Jones SJ. Proximity of supermarkets is positively associated with diet quality index for pregnancy. Prev Med. 2004;39:869–875
  93. Lassen A, Hansen KS, Trolle E. Comparison of buffet and a la carte serving at worksite canteens on nutrient intake and fruit and vegetable consumption. Public Health Nutr. 2007;10:292–297
  94. Latham J, Moffat T. Determinants of variation in food cost and availability in two socioeconomically contrasting neighbourhoods of Hamilton Ontario Canada. Health Place. 2007;13:273–287
  95. Lee AJ, Darcy AM, Leonard D, et al. Food availability, cost disparity and improvement in relation to accessibility and remoteness in Queensland. Aust N Z J Public Health. 2002;26:266–272
  96. Lewis LB, Sloane DC, Nascimento LM, et al. African Americans' access to health food options in South Los Angeles restaurants. Am J Public Health. 2005;95:668–673
  97. Liu GC, Wilson JS, Qi R, Ying J. Green neighborhoods, food retail and child overweight: differences by population density. Am J Health Promot. 2006;21(4S):317–325
  98. Lytle LA, Kubik MY, Perry C, Story M, Birnbaum AS, Murray DM. Influencing healthful choices in school and home environments: results from the TEENS Study. Prev Med. 2006;43:8–13
  99. MacDonald JM, Nelson PE. Do the poor still pay more? (Food price variations in large metropolitan areas). J Urban Econ. 1991;30:344–359
  100. MacDonald L, Cummins S, Macintyre S. Neighbourhood fast food environment and area deprivation—substitution or concentration?. Appetite. 2007;49:251–254
  101. Macintyre S, McKay L, Cummins S, Burns C. Out of home food outlets and area deprivation: case study in Glasgow, UK. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2005;2:16
  102. Maddock J. The relationship between obesity and the prevalence of fast food restaurants: state-level analysis. Am J Health Promot. 2004;19:137–143
  103. McDonald CM, Karamlou T, Wengle JG, Gibson J, McCrindle BW. Nutrition and exercise environment available to outpatients, visitors, and staff in children's hospitals in Canada and the United States. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2006;160:900–905
  104. McGrath Morris PM, Leuhauser L, Campbell C. Food security in rural America; a study of the availability and costs of food. J Nutr Educ. 1992;24(1S):52S–58S
  105. Meyer MK, Conklin MT. Variables affecting high school students' perceptions of school food service. J Am Diet Assoc. 1998;98:1424–1431
  106. Mooney C. Cost and availability of healthy food choices in a London health district. J Hum Nutr Diet. 1990;3:111–120
  107. Moore LV, Diez Roux AV. Associations of neighborhood characteristics with the location and type of foodstores. Am J Public Health. 2006;96:325–331
  108. Morland K, Wing S, Diez Roux A, Poole C. Neighborhood characteristics associated with the location of foodstores and food service places. Am J Prev Med. 2002;22:23–29
  109. Morland K, Diez Roux A, Wing S. Supermarkets, other foodstores, and obesity: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Am J Prev Med. 2006;30:333–339
  110. Mujahid MS, Diez Roux AV, Morenoff JD, Raghunathan T. Assessing the measurement properties of neighborhood scales: from psychometrics to ecometrics. Am J Epidemiol. 2007;165:858–867
  111. Murnan J, Price JH, Telljohann SK, Dake JA, Boardley D. Parents' perceptions of curricular issues affecting children's weight in elementary schools. J Sch Health. 2006;76:502–511
  112. Narhinen M, Nissinen A, Puska P. Sales data of a supermarket—a tool for monitoring nutrition interventions. Public Health Nutr. 1998;1:101–107
  113. Neumark-Sztainer D, French SA, Hannan PJ, Story M, Fulkerson JA. School lunch and snacking patterns among high school students: associations with school food environment and policies. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2005;2:14
  114. Ni Mhurchu C, Ogra S. The price of healthy eating: cost and nutrient value of selected regular and healthier supermarket foods in New Zealand. N Z Med J. 2007;120:U2388
  115. Oldenburg B, Sallis JF, Harris D, Owen N. Checklist of Health Promotion Environments at Worksites (CHEW): development and measurement characteristics. Am J Health Promot. 2002;16:288–299
  116. Osganian SK, Ebzery MK, Montgomery DH, et al. Changes in the nutrient content of school lunches: results from the CATCH Eat Smart Food Service Intervention. Prev Med. 1996;25:400–412
  117. Palermo C, Wilson A. Development of a healthy food basket for Victoria. Aust N Z J Public Health. 2007;31:360–363
  118. Parker L, Rox A. The Peterborough Schools Nutrition Project: a multiple intervention programme to improve school-based eating in secondary schools. Public Health Nutr. 2001;4:1221–1228
  119. Pearce J, Witten K, Bartie P. Neighbourhoods and health: a GIS approach to measuring community resource accessibility. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2006;60:389–395
  120. Pearce J, Blakely T, Witten K, Bartie P. Neighborhood deprivation and access to fast food retailing: a national study. Am J Prev Med. 2007;32:375–382
  121. Pearson T, Russel J, Campbell MJ, Barker ME. Do ‘food deserts’ influence fruit and vegetable consumption?—a cross-sectional study'. Appetite. 2005;45:195–197
  122. Perry CL, Bishop DB, Taylor GL, et al. A randomized school trial of environmental strategies to encourage fruit and vegetable consumption among children. Health Educ Behav. 2004;31:65–76
  123. Powell LM, Slater S, Mirtcheva D, Bao Y, Chaloupka FJ. Foodstore availability and neighborhood characteristics in the United States. Prev Med. 2007;44:189–195
  124. Probart C, McDonnell E, Weirich JE, Hartmann T, Bailey-Davis L, Prabhakher V. Competitive foods available in Pennsylvania public high schools. J Am Diet Assoc. 2005;105:1243–1249
  125. Reid M, MacArthur S. Fruit and vegetable retailing and consumption in two disparate neighbourhoods. BNF Nutr Bulletin. 1997;22:167–177
  126. Reidpath DD, Burns C, Garrand J, Mahoney M, Townsend M. An ecological study of the relationship between social and environmental determinants of obesity. Health Place. 2002;8:141–145
  127. Ribisl KM, Reischl TM. Measuring the climate for health at organizations: development of the worksite health climate scales. J Occup Med. 1993;35:812–824
  128. Rose D, Richards R. Foodstore access and household fruit and vegetable use among participants in the U.S. Food Stamp Program. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:1081–1088
  129. Saelens BE, Glanz K, Sallis JF, Frank LD. Nutrition Environment Measures Study in Restaurants (NEMS-R): development and evaluation. Am J Prev Med. 2007;32:273–281
  130. Sanigorski AM, Bell AC, Kremer PJ, Swinburn BA. Lunchbox contents of Australian school children: room for improvement. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2005;59:1310–1316
  131. Shimotsu ST, French SA, Gerlach AF, Hannan PJ. Worksite environment physical activity and healthy choices: measurement of the worksite food and physical activity environment at four metropolitan bus garages. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2007;4:17
  132. Sloane DC, Diamant AL, Lewis LB, et al. Improving the nutritional resource environment for healthy living through community-based participatory research. J Gen Intern Med. 2003;18:568–575
  133. Smoyer-Tomic KE, Spence JC, Amrhein C. Food deserts in the prairies? (Supermarket accessibility and neighborhood need in Edmonton, Canada). Prof Geogr. 2006;58:307–326
  134. Snyder MP, Story M, Lytle LA. Reducing fat and sodium in school lunch programs: the LUNCHPOWER! Intervention Study. J Am Diet Assoc. 1992;92:1087–1091
  135. Sooman A, Macintyre S, Anderson A. Scotland's health—a more difficult challenge for some? (The price and availability of healthy foods in socially contrasting localities in the West of Scotland). Health Bull. 1993;51:276–284
  136. Story M, Snyder MP, Anliker J, et al. Changes in the nutrient content of school lunches: results from the Pathways Study. Prev Med. 2003;37:S35–S45
  137. Sturm R, Datar A. Body mass index in elementary school children, metropolitan area food prices and food outlet density. Public Health. 2005;119:1059–1068
  138. Thompson VJ, Bachman CM, Baranowski T, Cullen KW. Self-efficacy and norm measures for lunch fruit and vegetable consumption are reliable and valid among fifth grade students. J Nutr Educ Behav. 2007;39:2–7
  139. Travers KD, Cogdon A, McDonald W, Wright C, Anderson B, MacLean DR. Availability and cost of heart healthy dietary changes in Nova Scotia. J Can Diet Assoc. 1997;58:176–183
  140. Velempini E, Travers KD. Accessibility of nutritious African foods for an adequate diet in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. J Nutr Educ. 1997;29:120–127
  141. Wang MC, Gonzalez AA, Ritchie LD, Winkleby MA. The neighborhood food environment: sources of historical data on retail foodstores. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2006;3:15
  142. Wang M, Kim SK, Gonzalez AA, MacLeod KE, Winkelby MA. Socioeconomic and food-related physical characteristics of the neighbourhood environment are associated with body mass index. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2007;61:491–498
  143. Wechsler H, Basch CE, Zybert P, Lantigua R, Shea S. The availability of low-fat milk in an inner-city Latino community: implications for nutrition education. Am J Public Health. 1995;85:1690–1692
  144. Wechsler H, Brener ND, Kuester S, Miller C. Food service and foods and beverages available at school: results from the School Health Policies and Programs Study 2000. J Sch Health. 2001;71:313–324
  145. Wein EE. The high cost of a nutritionally adequate diet in four Yukon communities. Can J Public Health. 1994;85:310–312
  146. Whitaker RC, Wright JA, Finch AJ, Psaty BM. An environmental intervention to reduce dietary fat in school lunches. Pediatrics. 1993;91:1107–1111
  147. Wildey MB, Pampoalone SZ, Pelletier RL, Zive MM, Elder JP, Sallis JF. Fat and sugar levels are high in snacks purchased from student stores in middle schools. J Am Diet Assoc. 2000;100:319–322
  148. Williams PG, Reid M, Shaw K. The Illawarra healthy food price index 1 (Development of the food basket). Nutr Diet. 2004;61:200–207
  149. Williams PL, Johnson CP, Kratzmann ML, Jacob Johnson CS, Anderson BJ, Chenhall C. Can households earning minimum wage afford a nutritious diet?. Can J Public Health. 2006;97:430–434
  150. Winkler E, Turrell G, Patterson C. Does living in a disadvantaged area entail limited opportunities to purchase fresh fruit and vegetables in terms of price, availability, and variety? (Findings from the Brisbane Food Study). Health Place. 2006;12:741–748
  151. Winkler E, Turrell G, Patterson C. Does living in a disadvantaged area mean fewer opportunities to purchase fresh fruit and vegetables in the area? (Findings from the Brisbane Food Study). Health Place. 2006;12:306–319
  152. Winson A. Bringing political economy in the debate on the obesity epidemic. Agric Human Values. 2004;21:299–312
  153. Witten K, Exeter D, Field A. The quality of urban environments: mapping variation in access to community resources. Urban Stud. 2002;40:161–177
  154. Wootan M, Osborn M. Availability of nutrition information from chain restaurants in the United States. Am J Prev Med. 2006;30:266–268
  155. Zenk SN, Schulz AJ, Hollis-Neely T, et al. Fruit and vegetable intake in African Americans: income and store characteristics. Am J Prev Med. 2005;29:1–9
  156. Zenk SN, Schulz AJ, Israel BA, James SA, Bao S, Wilson ML. Neighborhood racial composition, neighborhood poverty, and the spatial accessibility of supermarkets in metropolitan Detroit. Am J Public Health. 2005;95:660–667
  157. Zenk SN, Schulz AJ, Israel BA, James SA, Bao S, Wilson ML. Fruit and vegetable access differs by community racial composition and socioeconomic position in Detroit Michigan. Ethn Dis. 2006;16:275–280
  158. Zive MM, Elder JP, Prochaska JJ, et al. Sources of dietary fat in middle schools. Prev Med. 2002;35:376–382
  159. Reisig VM, Hobbiss A. Food deserts and how to tackle them: a study of one city's approach. Health Educ J. 2000;59:137–149
  160. Lytle LA, Fulkerson JA. Assessing the dietary environment: examples from school-based nutrition interventions. Public Health Nutr. 2002;5:893–899
  161. Oakes JM, Mâsse LC, Messer LC. Work Group III: methodologic issues in research on the food and physical activity environments: addressing data complexity. Am J Prev Med. 2009;36(4S):S177–S181

PII: S0749-3797(09)00021-X

doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2009.01.012

American Journal of Preventive Medicine
Volume 36, Issue 4, Supplement , Pages S124-S133 , April 2009

Article Tools