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Review and special article| Volume 40, ISSUE 6, P645-658, June 2011

Determinants of Change in Physical Activity in Children and Adolescents

A Systematic Review
Open AccessDOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2011.02.025
Determinants of Change in Physical Activity in Children and Adolescents
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      Context

      Data are available on correlates of physical activity in children and adolescents, less is known about the determinants of change. This review aims to systematically review the published evidence regarding determinants of change in physical activity in children and adolescents.

      Evidence acquisition

      Prospective quantitative studies investigating change in physical activity in children and adolescents aged 4–18 years were identified from seven databases (to November 2010): PubMed, SCOPUS, PsycINFO, Ovid MEDLINE, SPORTDdiscus, Embase, and Web of Knowledge. Study inclusion, quality assessment, and data extraction were independently validated by two researchers. Semi-quantitative results were stratified by age (4–9 years, 10–13 years, and 14–18 years).

      Evidence synthesis

      Of the 46 studies that were included, 31 used self-reported physical activity; average methodologic quality was 3.2 (SD=1.2), scored 0–5. Of 62 potential determinants identified, 30 were studied more than three times and 14 reported consistent findings (66% of the reported associations were in the same direction). For children aged 4–9 years, girls reported larger declines than boys. Among those aged 10–13 years, higher levels of previous physical activity and self-efficacy resulted in smaller declines. Among adolescents (aged 14–18 years), higher perceived behavioral control, support for physical activity, and self-efficacy were associated with smaller declines in physical activity.

      Conclusions

      Few of the variables studied were consistently associated with changes in physical activity, although some were similar to those identified in cross-sectional studies. The heterogeneity in study samples, exposure and outcome variables, and the reliance on self-reported physical activity limit conclusions and highlight the need for further research to inform development and targeting of interventions.

      Context

      Higher levels of physical activity in childhood are associated with favorable metabolic and cardiovascular disease risk profiles,
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      Features of the metabolic syndrome are associated with objectively measured physical activity and fitness in Danish children: the European Youth Heart Study (EYHS).
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      increased well-being,
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      and normal skeletal development.
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      However, levels of physical activity in children and adolescents remain a public health concern
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      Evidence for secular trends in children's physical activity behaviour.
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      Physical activity and clustered cardiovascular risk in children: a cross-sectional study (The European Youth Heart Study).
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      and have been shown to decline as children progress through childhood to adolescence.
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      Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity from ages 9 to 15 years.
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      Thus, public health efforts are increasingly directed toward promoting physical activity and preventing this age-related decline.
      U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services and U.S. Secretary of Education
      Promoting better health for young people through physical activity and sport.
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      Physical activity promotion interventions have however met with limited success to date.
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      To date, a broad range of factors has been investigated, including demographic, biological, environmental, social, and psychological. Several in-depth reviews focusing on correlates of physical activity in youth have also been published.
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      Gender, age, SES, and parental and peer influences were among the most-researched correlates. However, previously identified correlates mostly relate to cross-sectional differences in levels of physical activity. Findings are therefore limited to hypothesis generation concerning potential causal factors and mediators.
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      Understanding of factors associated with physical activity would be significantly enhanced by examination of these previously identified correlates, and other factors, in longitudinal studies. Identifying determinants—potential causal factors
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      —and mediators of change in child and adolescent physical activity should strengthen the evidence base to inform the development and targeting of effective interventions.
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      Further, analyzing potential causal factors allows researchers to test the fit and utility of existing behavioral theories.
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      As public health efforts focus on changing physical activity behaviors among children and adolescents,
      U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services and U.S. Secretary of Education
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      http://fitness.gov/betterhealth/ppar.pdf
      research may increasingly focus on change in physical activity behavior and its determinants. However, comparatively few studies have investigated determinants of change in physical activity, and no review has so far attempted to synthesize this evidence. Following the ecologic model of physical activity behavior,
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      a systematic review was conducted of studies investigating potential determinants of change in physical activity in children and adolescents. The aim of the review is to collate the current evidence base, highlight research trends and limitations in physical activity determinants research, and synthesize the existing evidence.

      Evidence Acquisition

      Search Methods/Identification of Studies

      Computer searches for reports of studies investigating determinants of change in physical activity in children and adolescents were conducted using seven electronic databases (PubMed, PsycINFO, SCOPUS, Embase, Ovid MEDLINE, Web of Knowledge, and SPORTDiscus) including all electronically archived literature within the databases up until November 2010. The search strategy was based on the study population, physical activity behavior and its longitudinal patterns, study design, and the investigation of determinants of change in physical activity.

      Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria

      This review was restricted to studies published in English. To be included, a study had to be a prospective study quantifying change in physical activity in children or adolescents, and assessing at least one potential determinant of change. All studies were required to include a measure of physical activity at baseline and at follow-up. In addition, participants had to be within the range of 4–18 years within their measurement periods. Intervention studies were included only if a cohort analysis assessing associations between potential determinants and change in physical activity was reported.
      All types of overall physical activity domains were included, except for studies focusing on a single specific behavior, such as active transport. As heterogeneity in change in the different domains of physical activity was anticipated, an a priori decision not to stratify by domain of physical activity was made. This review considers both determinants and longitudinal correlated changes in potential determinants and physical activity. Bauman et al.
      • Bauman A.E.
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      • Dzewaltowski D.A.
      • Owen N.
      Toward a better understanding of the influences on physical activity: the role of determinants, correlates, causal variables, mediators, moderators, and confounders.
      Am J Prev Med. 2002; 23: 5-14
      define a determinant as a preceding, causal predictor of change in physical activity. Results for determinants and associations between changes in physical activity and changes in the determinants were grouped together.
      All studies identified through the database searches were extracted into an Endnote database. The titles, abstracts, and full texts of these papers were then screened for the inclusion criteria. The initial search and scanning was conducted by one reviewer and a 15% random sample was double checked at each title, abstract, and full-paper review stage, respectively. Should there have been a difference in opinions of more than one fifth of the doubly checked sample, further checks would have been completed. In four cases of differences in opinion, a consensus was reached by discussion or after consultation with a mediator. Reference lists of all papers included in the final sample were scanned for any additional relevant papers.

      Data Extraction

      Data extraction for all included studies was undertaken using standardized forms by one reviewer, and independently validated by a review of two random 15% samples of the included papers. Any discrepancies were resolved by discussion. The extracted data included first author, publication year, title, journal, country, study population, study setting, baseline descriptive data, physical activity measurement, analysis method, length of follow-up, number of follow-up measurements and results. Where possible, results from adjusted multivariate models were extracted instead of single variable model results. In line with previously published systematic reviews, potential determinants were categorized as biological and demographic, sociocultural, psychological, or physical environment variables following previous research.
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      • Prochaska J.J.
      • Taylor W.C.
      A review of correlates of physical activity of children and adolescents.
      Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000; 32: 963-975
      Semiquantitative results were stratified into three groups according to the mean age of the study samples: 4–9 years, an age group covering the transitional period between ages 10–13 years and 14–18 years.
      The a priori decision to stratify according to age was based on two main factors. First, correlates of physical activity have previously been shown to differ for children and adolescents
      • Sallis J.F.
      • Prochaska J.J.
      • Taylor W.C.
      A review of correlates of physical activity of children and adolescents.
      Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000; 32: 963-975
      , 
      • Van Der Horst K.
      • Paw M.J.
      • Twisk J.W.
      • Van Mechelen W.
      A brief review on correlates of physical activity and sedentariness in youth.
      Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007; 39: 1241-1250
      ; thus, determinants of change may also differ according to age. Second, research has also suggested an impact of major life transitions on behavior change throughout the life course.
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      One of these transitions may be from primary to secondary school, occurring approximately between ages 10 and 13 years. Publications that did not report a mean age for the sample population were categorized into age groups according to the middle value of the reported age range.

      Assessment of Methodologic Quality

      A scale assessing methodologic quality was constructed (shown in Appendix A, available online at www.ajpm-online.net) and modified from previously reported checklists.
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      The scale was focused on internal and external validity and all studies were assessed against the scale by one reviewer and independently validated by two random 15% samples of the included studies. The five-item scale is shown in Appendix A (available online at www.ajpmonline.org). Items were marked “positive,” “negative,” or “not sufficiently described.” A total score was calculated by adding all positive scores for each assessed study. The scoring system placed an emphasis on positive scores. Negative and not sufficiently described items were treated equally in that no points were scored for either.

      Strength of Evidence

      Results supported by objective measures of physical activity and studies with higher methodologic quality were highlighted. The smallest individual subsample was considered as the unit of analysis.
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      For instance, if results were stratified by boys and girls, two samples marked “m” for boys and “f” for girls were reviewed.
      Because of the expected heterogeneity in a number of key aspects of the included studies—such as the constructs used to measure the exposure variables, type of physical activity measure used, length of follow-up, setting, and study population—an a priori decision not to meta-analyze the data was made. Instead, a classification system similar to previous systematic reviews
      • Davison K.
      • Lawson C.
      Do attributes in the physical environment influence children's physical activity? A review of the literature.
      Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2006; 3: 19
      , 
      • Sallis J.F.
      • Prochaska J.J.
      • Taylor W.C.
      A review of correlates of physical activity of children and adolescents.
      Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000; 32: 963-975
      , 
      • Van Der Horst K.
      • Paw M.J.
      • Twisk J.W.
      • Van Mechelen W.
      A brief review on correlates of physical activity and sedentariness in youth.
      Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007; 39: 1241-1250
      was used. Significant associations (p<0.05) were noted as (++) or (– –), according to the direction of the association, whereas statistical findings below a threshold p-value <0.1 were reported as (+) and (–) for a positive or negative direction of association, respectively. Significant associations (p<0.05) without a stated direction of association were followed up by correspondence with the author; in case of no reply, the most likely direction of association was reported with reference to existing research. No association and inconclusive evidence were denoted by a (0) and (?), respectively. For a conclusion to be drawn, a determinant had to be reported by at least three study samples, and at least two thirds of the reported associations were required to be in the same direction.
      • Sallis J.F.
      • Prochaska J.J.
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      A review of correlates of physical activity of children and adolescents.
      Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000; 32: 963-975
      A positive, negative, or null association was reported as ++, – –, or 00 respectively. If it was not possible to reach a conclusion, an indeterminate association was reported as ??.

      Evidence Synthesis

      Of 14,487 studies identified through all database searches, 163 papers were read in full and 46 papers were included (Figure 1). Potential papers were most commonly excluded because they did not address determinants of change in physical activity, examined cross-sectional data, or the sample population age did not match the review inclusion criteria (Table 1 and Appendix B [available online at www.ajpmonline.org] show descriptive summaries of all included studies
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      Am J Clin Nutr. 2005; 81: 1102-1109
      , 
      • Viira R.
      • Raudsepp L.
      Psychosocial correlates of physical activity among seven through eight grades.
      J Hum Mov Stud. 2003; 44: 501-517
      ). Thirty-eight
      • Nader P.R.
      • Bradley R.H.
      • Houts R.M.
      • McRitchie S.L.
      • O'Brien M.
      Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity from ages 9 to 15 years.
      JAMA. 2008; 300: 295-305
      , 
      • Alderman B.L.
      • Benham-Deal T.B.
      • Jenkins J.M.
      Change in parental influence on children's physical activity over time.
      J Phys Act Health. 2010; 7: 60-67
      , 
      • Armstrong N.
      • Welsman J.R.
      • Kirby B.J.
      Longitudinal changes in 11–13-year-olds' physical activity.
      Acta Paediatr. 2000; 89: 775-780
      , 
      • Ball K.
      • Cleland V.J.
      • Timperio A.F.
      • Salmon J.
      • Crawford D.A.
      Socioeconomic position and children's physical activity and sedentary behaviors: longitudinal findings from the CLAN Study.
      J Phys Act Health. 2009; 6: 289-298
      , 
      • Barnett T.A.
      • O'Loughlin J.
      • Paradis G.
      One- and two-year predictors of decline in physical activity among inner-city schoolchildren.
      Am J Prev Med. 2002; 23: 121-128
      , 
      • Bauer K.W.
      • Nelson M.C.
      • Boutelle K.N.
      • Neumark-Sztainer D.
      Parental influences on adolescents' physical activity and sedentary behavior: longitudinal findings from Project EAT-II.
      Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2008; 5: 12
      , 
      • Brodersen N.H.
      • Steptoe A.
      • Boniface D.R.
      • Wardle J.
      Trends in physical activity and sedentary behaviour in adolescence: ethnic and socioeconomic differences.
      Br J Sports Med. 2007; 41: 140-144
      , 
      • Bruner M.W.
      • Chad K.E.
      • Beattie-Flath J.A.
      • et al.
      Examination of physical activity in adolescents over the school year.
      Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2009; 21: 421-435
      , 
      • Butcher J.
      • Sallis J.F.
      • McKenzie T.L.
      • Alcaraz J.E.
      A longitudinal study of children's participation in organized sport and instructional programs.
      Avante. 2001; 7: 86-96
      , 
      • Callaghan P.
      • Khalil E.
      • Morres I.
      A prospective evaluation of the Transtheoretical Model of Change applied to exercise in young people.
      Int J Nurs Stud. 2010; 47: 3-12
      , 
      • Carver A.
      • Timperio A.
      • Hesketh K.
      • Crawford D.
      Are safety-related features of the road environment associated with smaller declines in physical activity among youth?.
      J Urban Health. 2010; 87: 29-43
      , 
      • Corder K.
      • Van Sluijs E.M.F.
      • Ekelund U.
      • Jones A.P.
      • Griffin S.J.
      Changes in children's physical activity over 12 months: Longitudinal results from the SPEEDY study.
      Pediatrics. 2010; 126: e926-e935
      , 
      • Crawford D.
      • Cleland V.
      • Timperio A.
      • et al.
      The longitudinal influence of home and neighbourhood environments on children's body mass index and physical activity over 5 years: the CLAN study.
      Int J Obes. 2010; 34: 1177-1187
      , 
      • Crocker P.
      • Sabiston C.
      • Forrestor S.
      • Kowalski N.
      • Kowalski K.
      • McDonough M.
      Predicting change in physical activity, dietary restraint, and physique anxiety in adolescent girls: examining covariance in physical self-perceptions.
      Can J Public Health. 2003; 94: 332-337
      , 
      • Davison K.K.
      • Werder J.L.
      • Trost S.G.
      • Baker B.L.
      • Birch L.L.
      Why are early maturing girls less active? Links between pubertal development, psychological well-being, and physical activity among girls at ages 11 and 13.
      Soc Sci Med. 2007; 64: 2391-2404
      , 
      • de Bruijn G.J.
      • Kremers S.P.J.
      • Lensvelt-Mulders G.
      • de Vries H.
      • van Mechelen W.
      • Brug J.
      Modeling individual and physical environmental factors with adolescent physical activity.
      Am J Prev Med. 2006; 30: 507-512
      , 
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Saunders R.P.
      • Felton G.
      • Ward D.S.
      • Dowda M.
      • Pate R.R.
      Goals and intentions mediate efficacy beliefs and declining physical activity in high school girls.
      Am J Prev Med. 2006; 31: 475-483
      , 
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Saunders R.P.
      • Motl R.W.
      • Dowda M.
      • Pate R.R.
      Self-efficacy moderates the relation between declines in physical activity and perceived social support in high school girls.
      J Pediatr Psychol. 2009; 34: 441-451
      , 
      • Dowda M.
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Pfeiffer K.A.
      • Pate R.R.
      Family support for physical activity in girls from 8th to 12th grade in South Carolina.
      Prev Med. 2007; 44: 153-159
      , 
      • Duncan S.C.
      • Duncan T.E.
      • Strycker L.A.
      • Chaumeton N.R.
      A cohort-sequential latent growth model of physical activity from ages 12 to 17 years.
      Ann Behav Med. 2007; 33: 80-89
      , 
      • Dzewaltowski D.A.
      • Karteroliotis K.
      • Welk G.
      • Johnston J.A.
      • Nyaronga D.
      • Estabrooks P.A.
      Measurement of self-efficacy and proxy efficacy for middle school youth physical activity.
      J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2007; 29: 310-332
      , 
      • Findlay L.C.
      • Garner R.E.
      • Kohen D.E.
      Children's organized physical activity patterns from childhood into adolescence.
      J Phys Act Health. 2009; 6: 708-715
      , 
      • Hampson S.E.
      • Andrews J.A.
      • Peterson M.
      • Duncan S.C.
      A cognitive–behavioral mechanism leading to adolescent obesity: children's social images and physical activity.
      Ann Behav Med. 2007; 34: 287-294
      , 
      • Kahn J.A.
      • Huang B.
      • Gillman M.W.
      • et al.
      Patterns and determinants of physical activity in U.S. adolescents.
      J Adolesc Health. 2008; 42: 369-377
      , 
      • Knowles A.-M.
      • Niven A.G.
      • Fawkner S.G.
      • Henretty J.M.
      A longitudinal examination of the influence of maturation on physical self-perceptions and the relationship with physical activity in early adolescent girls.
      J Adolesc. 2009; 32: 555-566
      , 
      • McMurray R.G.
      • Harrell J.S.
      • Creighton D.
      • Wang Z.
      • Bangdiwala S.I.
      Influence of physical activity on change in weight status as children become adolescents.
      Int J Pediatr Obes. 2008; 3: 69-77
      , 
      • Morgan C.F.
      • Graser S.V.
      • Pan Grazi R.P.
      A prospective study of pedometer-determined physical activity and physical self-perceptions in children.
      Res Q Exerc Sport. 2008; 79: 133-140
      , 
      • Motl R.W.
      • Birnbaum A.S.
      • Kubik M.Y.
      • Dishman R.K.
      Naturally occurring changes in physical activity are inversely related to depressive symptoms during early adolescence.
      Psychosom Med. 2004; 66: 336-342
      , 
      • Motl R.W.
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Ward D.S.
      • et al.
      Comparison of barriers self-efficacy and perceived behavioral control for explaining physical activity across 1 year among adolescent girls.
      Health Psychol. 2005; 24: 106-111
      , 
      • Motl R.W.
      • McAuley E.
      • Birnbaum A.S.
      • Lytle L.A.
      Naturally occurring changes in time spent watching television are inversely related to frequency of physical activity during early adolescence.
      J Adolesc. 2006; 29: 19-32
      , 
      • Neumark-Sztainer D.
      • Story M.
      • Hannan P.J.
      • Tharp T.
      • Rex J.
      Factors associated with changes in physical activity: a cohort study of inactive adolescent girls.
      Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003; 157: 803-810
      , 
      • Raudsepp L.
      • Neissaar I.
      • Kull M.
      Longitudinal stability of sedentary behaviors and physical activity during early adolescence.
      Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2008; 20: 251-262
      , 
      • Raudsepp L.
      • Viira R.
      Changes in physical activity in adolescent girls: a latent growth modelling approach.
      Acta Paediatr. 2008; 97: 647-652
      , 
      • Rhodes R.E.
      • Macdonald H.M.
      • McKay H.A.
      Predicting physical activity intention and behaviour among children in a longitudinal sample.
      Soc Sci Med. 2006; 62: 3146-3156
      , 
      • Sagatun A.
      • Kolle E.
      • Anderssen S.A.
      • Thoresen M.
      • Sogaard A.J.
      Three-year follow-up of physical activity in Norwegian youth from two ethnic groups: associations with socio-demographic factors.
      BMC Public Health. 2008; 8: 419
      , 
      • Sigmund E.
      • Sigmundová D.
      • El Ansari W.
      Changes in physical activity in pre-schoolers and first-grade children: longitudinal study in the Czech Republic.
      Child Care Health Dev. 2009; 35: 376-382
      , 
      • Spadano J.L.
      • Bandini L.G.
      • Must A.
      • Dallal G.E.
      • Dietz W.H.
      Longitudinal changes in energy expenditure in girls from late childhood through midadolescence.
      Am J Clin Nutr. 2005; 81: 1102-1109
      , 
      • Viira R.
      • Raudsepp L.
      Psychosocial correlates of physical activity among seven through eight grades.
      J Hum Mov Stud. 2003; 44: 501-517
      of all included studies were published after the year 2000, 30 studies
      • Nader P.R.
      • Bradley R.H.
      • Houts R.M.
      • McRitchie S.L.
      • O'Brien M.
      Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity from ages 9 to 15 years.
      JAMA. 2008; 300: 295-305
      , 
      • Garcia A.W.
      • Pender N.J.
      • Antonakos C.L.
      • Ronis D.L.
      Changes in physical activity beliefs and behaviors of boys and girls across the transition to junior high school.
      J Adolesc Health. 1998; 22: 394-402
      , 
      • Alderman B.L.
      • Benham-Deal T.B.
      • Jenkins J.M.
      Change in parental influence on children's physical activity over time.
      J Phys Act Health. 2010; 7: 60-67
      , 
      • Anderson D.F.
      • Lorenz F.O.
      • Pease D.G.
      La prediction de la pratique sportive actuelle a partir du sexe, de la pratique passee et des attitudes chez des enfants: une analyse longitudinale.
      Sociol Sport J. 1986; 3 ([Prediction of present participation from children's gender, past participation, and attitudes: a longitudinal analysis]): 101-111
      , 
      • Barnett T.A.
      • O'Loughlin J.
      • Paradis G.
      One- and two-year predictors of decline in physical activity among inner-city schoolchildren.
      Am J Prev Med. 2002; 23: 121-128
      , 
      • Bauer K.W.
      • Nelson M.C.
      • Boutelle K.N.
      • Neumark-Sztainer D.
      Parental influences on adolescents' physical activity and sedentary behavior: longitudinal findings from Project EAT-II.
      Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2008; 5: 12
      , 
      • Bruner M.W.
      • Chad K.E.
      • Beattie-Flath J.A.
      • et al.
      Examination of physical activity in adolescents over the school year.
      Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2009; 21: 421-435
      , 
      • Butcher J.
      • Sallis J.F.
      • McKenzie T.L.
      • Alcaraz J.E.
      A longitudinal study of children's participation in organized sport and instructional programs.
      Avante. 2001; 7: 86-96
      , 
      • Crocker P.
      • Sabiston C.
      • Forrestor S.
      • Kowalski N.
      • Kowalski K.
      • McDonough M.
      Predicting change in physical activity, dietary restraint, and physique anxiety in adolescent girls: examining covariance in physical self-perceptions.
      Can J Public Health. 2003; 94: 332-337
      , 
      • Davison K.K.
      • Werder J.L.
      • Trost S.G.
      • Baker B.L.
      • Birch L.L.
      Why are early maturing girls less active? Links between pubertal development, psychological well-being, and physical activity among girls at ages 11 and 13.
      Soc Sci Med. 2007; 64: 2391-2404
      , 
      • DiLorenzo T.M.
      • Stucky-Ropp R.C.
      • Vander Wal J.S.
      • Gotham H.J.
      Determinants of exercise among children II. A longitudinal analysis.
      Prev Med. 1998; 27: 470-477
      , 
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Saunders R.P.
      • Felton G.
      • Ward D.S.
      • Dowda M.
      • Pate R.R.
      Goals and intentions mediate efficacy beliefs and declining physical activity in high school girls.
      Am J Prev Med. 2006; 31: 475-483
      , 
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Saunders R.P.
      • Motl R.W.
      • Dowda M.
      • Pate R.R.
      Self-efficacy moderates the relation between declines in physical activity and perceived social support in high school girls.
      J Pediatr Psychol. 2009; 34: 441-451
      , 
      • Dowda M.
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Pfeiffer K.A.
      • Pate R.R.
      Family support for physical activity in girls from 8th to 12th grade in South Carolina.
      Prev Med. 2007; 44: 153-159
      , 
      • Duncan S.C.
      • Duncan T.E.
      • Strycker L.A.
      • Chaumeton N.R.
      A cohort-sequential latent growth model of physical activity from ages 12 to 17 years.
      Ann Behav Med. 2007; 33: 80-89
      , 
      • Dzewaltowski D.A.
      • Karteroliotis K.
      • Welk G.
      • Johnston J.A.
      • Nyaronga D.
      • Estabrooks P.A.
      Measurement of self-efficacy and proxy efficacy for middle school youth physical activity.
      J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2007; 29: 310-332
      , 
      • Findlay L.C.
      • Garner R.E.
      • Kohen D.E.
      Children's organized physical activity patterns from childhood into adolescence.
      J Phys Act Health. 2009; 6: 708-715
      , 
      • Goran M.I.
      • Gover B.A.
      • Nagy T.R.
      • Johnson R.K.
      Developmental changes in energy expenditure and physical activity in children: evidence for a decline in physical activity in girls before puberty.
      Pediatrics. 1998; 101: 887-891
      , 
      • Hampson S.E.
      • Andrews J.A.
      • Peterson M.
      • Duncan S.C.
      A cognitive–behavioral mechanism leading to adolescent obesity: children's social images and physical activity.
      Ann Behav Med. 2007; 34: 287-294
      , 
      • Kahn J.A.
      • Huang B.
      • Gillman M.W.
      • et al.
      Patterns and determinants of physical activity in U.S. adolescents.
      J Adolesc Health. 2008; 42: 369-377
      , 
      • McMurray R.G.
      • Harrell J.S.
      • Creighton D.
      • Wang Z.
      • Bangdiwala S.I.
      Influence of physical activity on change in weight status as children become adolescents.
      Int J Pediatr Obes. 2008; 3: 69-77
      , 
      • Morgan C.F.
      • Graser S.V.
      • Pan Grazi R.P.
      A prospective study of pedometer-determined physical activity and physical self-perceptions in children.
      Res Q Exerc Sport. 2008; 79: 133-140
      , 
      • Motl R.W.
      • Birnbaum A.S.
      • Kubik M.Y.
      • Dishman R.K.
      Naturally occurring changes in physical activity are inversely related to depressive symptoms during early adolescence.
      Psychosom Med. 2004; 66: 336-342
      , 
      • Motl R.W.
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Ward D.S.
      • et al.
      Comparison of barriers self-efficacy and perceived behavioral control for explaining physical activity across 1 year among adolescent girls.
      Health Psychol. 2005; 24: 106-111
      , 
      • Motl R.W.
      • McAuley E.
      • Birnbaum A.S.
      • Lytle L.A.
      Naturally occurring changes in time spent watching television are inversely related to frequency of physical activity during early adolescence.
      J Adolesc. 2006; 29: 19-32
      , 
      • Neumark-Sztainer D.
      • Story M.
      • Hannan P.J.
      • Tharp T.
      • Rex J.
      Factors associated with changes in physical activity: a cohort study of inactive adolescent girls.
      Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003; 157: 803-810
      , 
      • Rhodes R.E.
      • Macdonald H.M.
      • McKay H.A.
      Predicting physical activity intention and behaviour among children in a longitudinal sample.
      Soc Sci Med. 2006; 62: 3146-3156
      , 
      • Robinson T.N.
      • Hammer L.D.
      • Killen J.D.
      • et al.
      Does television viewing increase obesity and reduce physical activity? Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses among adolescent girls.
      Pediatrics. 1993; 91: 273-280
      , 
      • Sallis J.F.
      • Alcaraz J.E.
      • McKenzie T.L.
      • Hovell M.F.
      Predictors of change in children's physical activity over 20 months Variations by gender and level of adiposity.
      Am J Prev Med. 1999; 16: 222-229
      , 
      • Spadano J.L.
      • Bandini L.G.
      • Must A.
      • Dallal G.E.
      • Dietz W.H.
      Longitudinal changes in energy expenditure in girls from late childhood through midadolescence.
      Am J Clin Nutr. 2005; 81: 1102-1109
      were conducted in North America, and 13 studies
      • Armstrong N.
      • Welsman J.R.
      • Kirby B.J.
      Longitudinal changes in 11–13-year-olds' physical activity.
      Acta Paediatr. 2000; 89: 775-780
      , 
      • Ball K.
      • Cleland V.J.
      • Timperio A.F.
      • Salmon J.
      • Crawford D.A.
      Socioeconomic position and children's physical activity and sedentary behaviors: longitudinal findings from the CLAN Study.
      J Phys Act Health. 2009; 6: 289-298
      , 
      • Barnett T.A.
      • O'Loughlin J.
      • Paradis G.
      One- and two-year predictors of decline in physical activity among inner-city schoolchildren.
      Am J Prev Med. 2002; 23: 121-128
      , 
      • Butcher J.
      • Sallis J.F.
      • McKenzie T.L.
      • Alcaraz J.E.
      A longitudinal study of children's participation in organized sport and instructional programs.
      Avante. 2001; 7: 86-96
      , 
      • Callaghan P.
      • Khalil E.
      • Morres I.
      A prospective evaluation of the Transtheoretical Model of Change applied to exercise in young people.
      Int J Nurs Stud. 2010; 47: 3-12
      , 
      • Corder K.
      • Van Sluijs E.M.F.
      • Ekelund U.
      • Jones A.P.
      • Griffin S.J.
      Changes in children's physical activity over 12 months: Longitudinal results from the SPEEDY study.
      Pediatrics. 2010; 126: e926-e935
      , 
      • de Bruijn G.J.
      • Kremers S.P.J.
      • Lensvelt-Mulders G.
      • de Vries H.
      • van Mechelen W.
      • Brug J.
      Modeling individual and physical environmental factors with adolescent physical activity.
      Am J Prev Med. 2006; 30: 507-512
      , 
      • DiLorenzo T.M.
      • Stucky-Ropp R.C.
      • Vander Wal J.S.
      • Gotham H.J.
      Determinants of exercise among children II. A longitudinal analysis.
      Prev Med. 1998; 27: 470-477
      , 
      • Dowda M.
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Pfeiffer K.A.
      • Pate R.R.
      Family support for physical activity in girls from 8th to 12th grade in South Carolina.
      Prev Med. 2007; 44: 153-159
      , 
      • Dzewaltowski D.A.
      • Karteroliotis K.
      • Welk G.
      • Johnston J.A.
      • Nyaronga D.
      • Estabrooks P.A.
      Measurement of self-efficacy and proxy efficacy for middle school youth physical activity.
      J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2007; 29: 310-332
      , 
      • Hampson S.E.
      • Andrews J.A.
      • Peterson M.
      • Duncan S.C.
      A cognitive–behavioral mechanism leading to adolescent obesity: children's social images and physical activity.
      Ann Behav Med. 2007; 34: 287-294
      , 
      • Knowles A.-M.
      • Niven A.G.
      • Fawkner S.G.
      • Henretty J.M.
      A longitudinal examination of the influence of maturation on physical self-perceptions and the relationship with physical activity in early adolescent girls.
      J Adolesc. 2009; 32: 555-566
      , 
      • Motl R.W.
      • McAuley E.
      • Birnbaum A.S.
      • Lytle L.A.
      Naturally occurring changes in time spent watching television are inversely related to frequency of physical activity during early adolescence.
      J Adolesc. 2006; 29: 19-32
      reported a baseline sample size of more than 1000 participants.
      Figure thumbnail gr1
      Figure 1Flow of studies through the review process
      Table 1Child and adolescent studies categorized by the baseline age of the included sample, publication year of the study, and analysis method employed
      References
      Sample baseline age (years)
       ≤9
      • Nader P.R.
      • Bradley R.H.
      • Houts R.M.
      • McRitchie S.L.
      • O'Brien M.
      Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity from ages 9 to 15 years.
      JAMA. 2008; 300: 295-305
      ,
      • Alderman B.L.
      • Benham-Deal T.B.
      • Jenkins J.M.
      Change in parental influence on children's physical activity over time.
      J Phys Act Health. 2010; 7: 60-67
      ,
      • Ball K.
      • Cleland V.J.
      • Timperio A.F.
      • Salmon J.
      • Crawford D.A.
      Socioeconomic position and children's physical activity and sedentary behaviors: longitudinal findings from the CLAN Study.
      J Phys Act Health. 2009; 6: 289-298
      ,
      • Butcher J.
      • Sallis J.F.
      • McKenzie T.L.
      • Alcaraz J.E.
      A longitudinal study of children's participation in organized sport and instructional programs.
      Avante. 2001; 7: 86-96
      ,
      • Carver A.
      • Timperio A.
      • Hesketh K.
      • Crawford D.
      Are safety-related features of the road environment associated with smaller declines in physical activity among youth?.
      J Urban Health. 2010; 87: 29-43
      ,
      • Findlay L.C.
      • Garner R.E.
      • Kohen D.E.
      Children's organized physical activity patterns from childhood into adolescence.
      J Phys Act Health. 2009; 6: 708-715
      ,
      • Goran M.I.
      • Gover B.A.
      • Nagy T.R.
      • Johnson R.K.
      Developmental changes in energy expenditure and physical activity in children: evidence for a decline in physical activity in girls before puberty.
      Pediatrics. 1998; 101: 887-891
      ,
      • Sigmund E.
      • Sigmundová D.
      • El Ansari W.
      Changes in physical activity in pre-schoolers and first-grade children: longitudinal study in the Czech Republic.
      Child Care Health Dev. 2009; 35: 376-382
       10–13
      • Garcia A.W.
      • Pender N.J.
      • Antonakos C.L.
      • Ronis D.L.
      Changes in physical activity beliefs and behaviors of boys and girls across the transition to junior high school.
      J Adolesc Health. 1998; 22: 394-402
      ,
      • Anderson D.F.
      • Lorenz F.O.
      • Pease D.G.
      La prediction de la pratique sportive actuelle a partir du sexe, de la pratique passee et des attitudes chez des enfants: une analyse longitudinale.
      Sociol Sport J. 1986; 3 ([Prediction of present participation from children's gender, past participation, and attitudes: a longitudinal analysis]): 101-111
      ,
      • Armstrong N.
      • Welsman J.R.
      • Kirby B.J.
      Longitudinal changes in 11–13-year-olds' physical activity.
      Acta Paediatr. 2000; 89: 775-780
      ,
      • Ball K.
      • Cleland V.J.
      • Timperio A.F.
      • Salmon J.
      • Crawford D.A.
      Socioeconomic position and children's physical activity and sedentary behaviors: longitudinal findings from the CLAN Study.
      J Phys Act Health. 2009; 6: 289-298
      ,
      • Barnett T.A.
      • O'Loughlin J.
      • Paradis G.
      One- and two-year predictors of decline in physical activity among inner-city schoolchildren.
      Am J Prev Med. 2002; 23: 121-128
      ,
      • Bauer K.W.
      • Nelson M.C.
      • Boutelle K.N.
      • Neumark-Sztainer D.
      Parental influences on adolescents' physical activity and sedentary behavior: longitudinal findings from Project EAT-II.
      Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2008; 5: 12
      ,
      • Brodersen N.H.
      • Steptoe A.
      • Boniface D.R.
      • Wardle J.
      Trends in physical activity and sedentary behaviour in adolescence: ethnic and socioeconomic differences.
      Br J Sports Med. 2007; 41: 140-144
      ,
      • Carver A.
      • Timperio A.
      • Hesketh K.
      • Crawford D.
      Are safety-related features of the road environment associated with smaller declines in physical activity among youth?.
      J Urban Health. 2010; 87: 29-43
      ,
      • Corder K.
      • Van Sluijs E.M.F.
      • Ekelund U.
      • Jones A.P.
      • Griffin S.J.
      Changes in children's physical activity over 12 months: Longitudinal results from the SPEEDY study.
      Pediatrics. 2010; 126: e926-e935
      ,
      • Crawford D.
      • Cleland V.
      • Timperio A.
      • et al.
      The longitudinal influence of home and neighbourhood environments on children's body mass index and physical activity over 5 years: the CLAN study.
      Int J Obes. 2010; 34: 1177-1187
      ,
      • Davison K.K.
      • Werder J.L.
      • Trost S.G.
      • Baker B.L.
      • Birch L.L.
      Why are early maturing girls less active? Links between pubertal development, psychological well-being, and physical activity among girls at ages 11 and 13.
      Soc Sci Med. 2007; 64: 2391-2404
      ,
      • Duncan S.C.
      • Duncan T.E.
      • Strycker L.A.
      • Chaumeton N.R.
      A cohort-sequential latent growth model of physical activity from ages 12 to 17 years.
      Ann Behav Med. 2007; 33: 80-89
      ,
      • Dzewaltowski D.A.
      • Karteroliotis K.
      • Welk G.
      • Johnston J.A.
      • Nyaronga D.
      • Estabrooks P.A.
      Measurement of self-efficacy and proxy efficacy for middle school youth physical activity.
      J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2007; 29: 310-332
      ,
      • Hampson S.E.
      • Andrews J.A.
      • Peterson M.
      • Duncan S.C.
      A cognitive–behavioral mechanism leading to adolescent obesity: children's social images and physical activity.
      Ann Behav Med. 2007; 34: 287-294
      ,
      • Kahn J.A.
      • Huang B.
      • Gillman M.W.
      • et al.
      Patterns and determinants of physical activity in U.S. adolescents.
      J Adolesc Health. 2008; 42: 369-377
      ,
      • Knowles A.-M.
      • Niven A.G.
      • Fawkner S.G.
      • Henretty J.M.
      A longitudinal examination of the influence of maturation on physical self-perceptions and the relationship with physical activity in early adolescent girls.
      J Adolesc. 2009; 32: 555-566
      ,
      • McMurray R.G.
      • Harrell J.S.
      • Creighton D.
      • Wang Z.
      • Bangdiwala S.I.
      Influence of physical activity on change in weight status as children become adolescents.
      Int J Pediatr Obes. 2008; 3: 69-77
      ,
      • Morgan C.F.
      • Graser S.V.
      • Pan Grazi R.P.
      A prospective study of pedometer-determined physical activity and physical self-perceptions in children.
      Res Q Exerc Sport. 2008; 79: 133-140
      ,
      • Motl R.W.
      • Birnbaum A.S.
      • Kubik M.Y.
      • Dishman R.K.
      Naturally occurring changes in physical activity are inversely related to depressive symptoms during early adolescence.
      Psychosom Med. 2004; 66: 336-342
      ,
      • Motl R.W.
      • McAuley E.
      • Birnbaum A.S.
      • Lytle L.A.
      Naturally occurring changes in time spent watching television are inversely related to frequency of physical activity during early adolescence.
      J Adolesc. 2006; 29: 19-32
      ,
      • Raudsepp L.
      • Neissaar I.
      • Kull M.
      Longitudinal stability of sedentary behaviors and physical activity during early adolescence.
      Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2008; 20: 251-262
      ,
      • Raudsepp L.
      • Viira R.
      Changes in physical activity in adolescent girls: a latent growth modelling approach.
      Acta Paediatr. 2008; 97: 647-652
      ,
      • Rhodes R.E.
      • Macdonald H.M.
      • McKay H.A.
      Predicting physical activity intention and behaviour among children in a longitudinal sample.
      Soc Sci Med. 2006; 62: 3146-3156
      ,
      • Robinson T.N.
      • Hammer L.D.
      • Killen J.D.
      • et al.
      Does television viewing increase obesity and reduce physical activity? Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses among adolescent girls.
      Pediatrics. 1993; 91: 273-280
       ≥14
      • Bruner M.W.
      • Chad K.E.
      • Beattie-Flath J.A.
      • et al.
      Examination of physical activity in adolescents over the school year.
      Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2009; 21: 421-435
      ,
      • Callaghan P.
      • Khalil E.
      • Morres I.
      A prospective evaluation of the Transtheoretical Model of Change applied to exercise in young people.
      Int J Nurs Stud. 2010; 47: 3-12
      ,
      • Crocker P.
      • Sabiston C.
      • Forrestor S.
      • Kowalski N.
      • Kowalski K.
      • McDonough M.
      Predicting change in physical activity, dietary restraint, and physique anxiety in adolescent girls: examining covariance in physical self-perceptions.
      Can J Public Health. 2003; 94: 332-337
      ,
      • de Bruijn G.J.
      • Kremers S.P.J.
      • Lensvelt-Mulders G.
      • de Vries H.
      • van Mechelen W.
      • Brug J.
      Modeling individual and physical environmental factors with adolescent physical activity.
      Am J Prev Med. 2006; 30: 507-512
      ,
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Saunders R.P.
      • Felton G.
      • Ward D.S.
      • Dowda M.
      • Pate R.R.
      Goals and intentions mediate efficacy beliefs and declining physical activity in high school girls.
      Am J Prev Med. 2006; 31: 475-483
      ,
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Saunders R.P.
      • Motl R.W.
      • Dowda M.
      • Pate R.R.
      Self-efficacy moderates the relation between declines in physical activity and perceived social support in high school girls.
      J Pediatr Psychol. 2009; 34: 441-451
      ,
      • Dovey S.M.
      Continuity and change in sporting and leisure time physical activities during adolescence.
      Br J Sports Med. 1998; 32: 53-57
      ,
      • Dowda M.
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Pfeiffer K.A.
      • Pate R.R.
      Family support for physical activity in girls from 8th to 12th grade in South Carolina.
      Prev Med. 2007; 44: 153-159
      ,
      • Fuchs R.
      • Powell K.E.
      • Semmer N.K.
      • Dwyer J.H.
      • Lippert P.
      • Hoffmeister H.
      Patterns of physical activity among German adolescents: the Berlin–Bremen Study.
      Prev Med. 1988; 17: 746-763
      ,
      • Motl R.W.
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Ward D.S.
      • et al.
      Comparison of barriers self-efficacy and perceived behavioral control for explaining physical activity across 1 year among adolescent girls.
      Health Psychol. 2005; 24: 106-111
      ,
      • Neumark-Sztainer D.
      • Story M.
      • Hannan P.J.
      • Tharp T.
      • Rex J.
      Factors associated with changes in physical activity: a cohort study of inactive adolescent girls.
      Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003; 157: 803-810
      ,
      • Sagatun A.
      • Kolle E.
      • Anderssen S.A.
      • Thoresen M.
      • Sogaard A.J.
      Three-year follow-up of physical activity in Norwegian youth from two ethnic groups: associations with socio-demographic factors.
      BMC Public Health. 2008; 8: 419
      Publication year
       <2000
      • Garcia A.W.
      • Pender N.J.
      • Antonakos C.L.
      • Ronis D.L.
      Changes in physical activity beliefs and behaviors of boys and girls across the transition to junior high school.
      J Adolesc Health. 1998; 22: 394-402
      ,
      • Anderson D.F.
      • Lorenz F.O.
      • Pease D.G.
      La prediction de la pratique sportive actuelle a partir du sexe, de la pratique passee et des attitudes chez des enfants: une analyse longitudinale.
      Sociol Sport J. 1986; 3 ([Prediction of present participation from children's gender, past participation, and attitudes: a longitudinal analysis]): 101-111
      ,
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Saunders R.P.
      • Motl R.W.
      • Dowda M.
      • Pate R.R.
      Self-efficacy moderates the relation between declines in physical activity and perceived social support in high school girls.
      J Pediatr Psychol. 2009; 34: 441-451
      ,
      • Dovey S.M.
      Continuity and change in sporting and leisure time physical activities during adolescence.
      Br J Sports Med. 1998; 32: 53-57
      ,
      • Fuchs R.
      • Powell K.E.
      • Semmer N.K.
      • Dwyer J.H.
      • Lippert P.
      • Hoffmeister H.
      Patterns of physical activity among German adolescents: the Berlin–Bremen Study.
      Prev Med. 1988; 17: 746-763
      ,
      • Goran M.I.
      • Gover B.A.
      • Nagy T.R.
      • Johnson R.K.
      Developmental changes in energy expenditure and physical activity in children: evidence for a decline in physical activity in girls before puberty.
      Pediatrics. 1998; 101: 887-891
      ,
      • Rhodes R.E.
      • Macdonald H.M.
      • McKay H.A.
      Predicting physical activity intention and behaviour among children in a longitudinal sample.
      Soc Sci Med. 2006; 62: 3146-3156
       2000–2005
      • Armstrong N.
      • Welsman J.R.
      • Kirby B.J.
      Longitudinal changes in 11–13-year-olds' physical activity.
      Acta Paediatr. 2000; 89: 775-780
      ,
      • Barnett T.A.
      • O'Loughlin J.
      • Paradis G.
      One- and two-year predictors of decline in physical activity among inner-city schoolchildren.
      Am J Prev Med. 2002; 23: 121-128
      ,
      • Butcher J.
      • Sallis J.F.
      • McKenzie T.L.
      • Alcaraz J.E.
      A longitudinal study of children's participation in organized sport and instructional programs.
      Avante. 2001; 7: 86-96
      ,
      • Crocker P.
      • Sabiston C.
      • Forrestor S.
      • Kowalski N.
      • Kowalski K.
      • McDonough M.
      Predicting change in physical activity, dietary restraint, and physique anxiety in adolescent girls: examining covariance in physical self-perceptions.
      Can J Public Health. 2003; 94: 332-337
      ,
      • Motl R.W.
      • Birnbaum A.S.
      • Kubik M.Y.
      • Dishman R.K.
      Naturally occurring changes in physical activity are inversely related to depressive symptoms during early adolescence.
      Psychosom Med. 2004; 66: 336-342
      ,
      • Motl R.W.
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Ward D.S.
      • et al.
      Comparison of barriers self-efficacy and perceived behavioral control for explaining physical activity across 1 year among adolescent girls.
      Health Psychol. 2005; 24: 106-111
      ,
      • Neumark-Sztainer D.
      • Story M.
      • Hannan P.J.
      • Tharp T.
      • Rex J.
      Factors associated with changes in physical activity: a cohort study of inactive adolescent girls.
      Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003; 157: 803-810
      ,
      • Spadano J.L.
      • Bandini L.G.
      • Must A.
      • Dallal G.E.
      • Dietz W.H.
      Longitudinal changes in energy expenditure in girls from late childhood through midadolescence.
      Am J Clin Nutr. 2005; 81: 1102-1109
      ,
      • Viira R.
      • Raudsepp L.
      Psychosocial correlates of physical activity among seven through eight grades.
      J Hum Mov Stud. 2003; 44: 501-517
       2006–2008
      • Nader P.R.
      • Bradley R.H.
      • Houts R.M.
      • McRitchie S.L.
      • O'Brien M.
      Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity from ages 9 to 15 years.
      JAMA. 2008; 300: 295-305
      ,
      • Bauer K.W.
      • Nelson M.C.
      • Boutelle K.N.
      • Neumark-Sztainer D.
      Parental influences on adolescents' physical activity and sedentary behavior: longitudinal findings from Project EAT-II.
      Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2008; 5: 12
      ,
      • Brodersen N.H.
      • Steptoe A.
      • Boniface D.R.
      • Wardle J.
      Trends in physical activity and sedentary behaviour in adolescence: ethnic and socioeconomic differences.
      Br J Sports Med. 2007; 41: 140-144
      ,
      • Davison K.K.
      • Werder J.L.
      • Trost S.G.
      • Baker B.L.
      • Birch L.L.
      Why are early maturing girls less active? Links between pubertal development, psychological well-being, and physical activity among girls at ages 11 and 13.
      Soc Sci Med. 2007; 64: 2391-2404
      ,
      • de Bruijn G.J.
      • Kremers S.P.J.
      • Lensvelt-Mulders G.
      • de Vries H.
      • van Mechelen W.
      • Brug J.
      Modeling individual and physical environmental factors with adolescent physical activity.
      Am J Prev Med. 2006; 30: 507-512
      ,
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Saunders R.P.
      • Felton G.
      • Ward D.S.
      • Dowda M.
      • Pate R.R.
      Goals and intentions mediate efficacy beliefs and declining physical activity in high school girls.
      Am J Prev Med. 2006; 31: 475-483
      ,
      • Dowda M.
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Pfeiffer K.A.
      • Pate R.R.
      Family support for physical activity in girls from 8th to 12th grade in South Carolina.
      Prev Med. 2007; 44: 153-159
      ,
      • Duncan S.C.
      • Duncan T.E.
      • Strycker L.A.
      • Chaumeton N.R.
      A cohort-sequential latent growth model of physical activity from ages 12 to 17 years.
      Ann Behav Med. 2007; 33: 80-89
      ,
      • Dzewaltowski D.A.
      • Karteroliotis K.
      • Welk G.
      • Johnston J.A.
      • Nyaronga D.
      • Estabrooks P.A.
      Measurement of self-efficacy and proxy efficacy for middle school youth physical activity.
      J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2007; 29: 310-332
      ,
      • Hampson S.E.
      • Andrews J.A.
      • Peterson M.
      • Duncan S.C.
      A cognitive–behavioral mechanism leading to adolescent obesity: children's social images and physical activity.
      Ann Behav Med. 2007; 34: 287-294
      ,
      • Kahn J.A.
      • Huang B.
      • Gillman M.W.
      • et al.
      Patterns and determinants of physical activity in U.S. adolescents.
      J Adolesc Health. 2008; 42: 369-377
      ,
      • Knowles A.-M.
      • Niven A.G.
      • Fawkner S.G.
      • Henretty J.M.
      A longitudinal examination of the influence of maturation on physical self-perceptions and the relationship with physical activity in early adolescent girls.
      J Adolesc. 2009; 32: 555-566
      ,
      • McMurray R.G.
      • Harrell J.S.
      • Creighton D.
      • Wang Z.
      • Bangdiwala S.I.
      Influence of physical activity on change in weight status as children become adolescents.
      Int J Pediatr Obes. 2008; 3: 69-77
      ,
      • Morgan C.F.
      • Graser S.V.
      • Pan Grazi R.P.
      A prospective study of pedometer-determined physical activity and physical self-perceptions in children.
      Res Q Exerc Sport. 2008; 79: 133-140
      ,
      • Motl R.W.
      • McAuley E.
      • Birnbaum A.S.
      • Lytle L.A.
      Naturally occurring changes in time spent watching television are inversely related to frequency of physical activity during early adolescence.
      J Adolesc. 2006; 29: 19-32
      ,
      • Raudsepp L.
      • Neissaar I.
      • Kull M.
      Longitudinal stability of sedentary behaviors and physical activity during early adolescence.
      Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2008; 20: 251-262
      ,
      • Raudsepp L.
      • Viira R.
      Changes in physical activity in adolescent girls: a latent growth modelling approach.
      Acta Paediatr. 2008; 97: 647-652
      ,
      • Robinson T.N.
      • Hammer L.D.
      • Killen J.D.
      • et al.
      Does television viewing increase obesity and reduce physical activity? Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses among adolescent girls.
      Pediatrics. 1993; 91: 273-280
      ,
      • Sagatun A.
      • Kolle E.
      • Anderssen S.A.
      • Thoresen M.
      • Sogaard A.J.
      Three-year follow-up of physical activity in Norwegian youth from two ethnic groups: associations with socio-demographic factors.
      BMC Public Health. 2008; 8: 419
       >2009
      • Alderman B.L.
      • Benham-Deal T.B.
      • Jenkins J.M.
      Change in parental influence on children's physical activity over time.
      J Phys Act Health. 2010; 7: 60-67
      ,
      • Ball K.
      • Cleland V.J.
      • Timperio A.F.
      • Salmon J.
      • Crawford D.A.
      Socioeconomic position and children's physical activity and sedentary behaviors: longitudinal findings from the CLAN Study.
      J Phys Act Health. 2009; 6: 289-298
      ,
      • Bruner M.W.
      • Chad K.E.
      • Beattie-Flath J.A.
      • et al.
      Examination of physical activity in adolescents over the school year.
      Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2009; 21: 421-435
      ,
      • Callaghan P.
      • Khalil E.
      • Morres I.
      A prospective evaluation of the Transtheoretical Model of Change applied to exercise in young people.
      Int J Nurs Stud. 2010; 47: 3-12
      ,
      • Carver A.
      • Timperio A.
      • Hesketh K.
      • Crawford D.
      Are safety-related features of the road environment associated with smaller declines in physical activity among youth?.
      J Urban Health. 2010; 87: 29-43
      ,
      • Corder K.
      • Van Sluijs E.M.F.
      • Ekelund U.
      • Jones A.P.
      • Griffin S.J.
      Changes in children's physical activity over 12 months: Longitudinal results from the SPEEDY study.
      Pediatrics. 2010; 126: e926-e935
      ,
      • Crawford D.
      • Cleland V.
      • Timperio A.
      • et al.
      The longitudinal influence of home and neighbourhood environments on children's body mass index and physical activity over 5 years: the CLAN study.
      Int J Obes. 2010; 34: 1177-1187
      ,
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Saunders R.P.
      • Motl R.W.
      • Dowda M.
      • Pate R.R.
      Self-efficacy moderates the relation between declines in physical activity and perceived social support in high school girls.
      J Pediatr Psychol. 2009; 34: 441-451
      ,
      • Findlay L.C.
      • Garner R.E.
      • Kohen D.E.
      Children's organized physical activity patterns from childhood into adolescence.
      J Phys Act Health. 2009; 6: 708-715
      ,
      • Sigmund E.
      • Sigmundová D.
      • El Ansari W.
      Changes in physical activity in pre-schoolers and first-grade children: longitudinal study in the Czech Republic.
      Child Care Health Dev. 2009; 35: 376-382
      Country of study origin
       U.S.
      • Nader P.R.
      • Bradley R.H.
      • Houts R.M.
      • McRitchie S.L.
      • O'Brien M.
      Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity from ages 9 to 15 years.
      JAMA. 2008; 300: 295-305
      ,
      • Garcia A.W.
      • Pender N.J.
      • Antonakos C.L.
      • Ronis D.L.
      Changes in physical activity beliefs and behaviors of boys and girls across the transition to junior high school.
      J Adolesc Health. 1998; 22: 394-402
      ,
      • Alderman B.L.
      • Benham-Deal T.B.
      • Jenkins J.M.
      Change in parental influence on children's physical activity over time.
      J Phys Act Health. 2010; 7: 60-67
      ,
      • Anderson D.F.
      • Lorenz F.O.
      • Pease D.G.
      La prediction de la pratique sportive actuelle a partir du sexe, de la pratique passee et des attitudes chez des enfants: une analyse longitudinale.
      Sociol Sport J. 1986; 3 ([Prediction of present participation from children's gender, past participation, and attitudes: a longitudinal analysis]): 101-111
      ,
      • Bauer K.W.
      • Nelson M.C.
      • Boutelle K.N.
      • Neumark-Sztainer D.
      Parental influences on adolescents' physical activity and sedentary behavior: longitudinal findings from Project EAT-II.
      Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2008; 5: 12
      ,
      • Butcher J.
      • Sallis J.F.
      • McKenzie T.L.
      • Alcaraz J.E.
      A longitudinal study of children's participation in organized sport and instructional programs.
      Avante. 2001; 7: 86-96
      ,
      • Davison K.K.
      • Werder J.L.
      • Trost S.G.
      • Baker B.L.
      • Birch L.L.
      Why are early maturing girls less active? Links between pubertal development, psychological well-being, and physical activity among girls at ages 11 and 13.
      Soc Sci Med. 2007; 64: 2391-2404
      ,
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Saunders R.P.
      • Felton G.
      • Ward D.S.
      • Dowda M.
      • Pate R.R.
      Goals and intentions mediate efficacy beliefs and declining physical activity in high school girls.
      Am J Prev Med. 2006; 31: 475-483
      ,
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Saunders R.P.
      • Motl R.W.
      • Dowda M.
      • Pate R.R.
      Self-efficacy moderates the relation between declines in physical activity and perceived social support in high school girls.
      J Pediatr Psychol. 2009; 34: 441-451
      ,
      • Dowda M.
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Pfeiffer K.A.
      • Pate R.R.
      Family support for physical activity in girls from 8th to 12th grade in South Carolina.
      Prev Med. 2007; 44: 153-159
      ,
      • Duncan S.C.
      • Duncan T.E.
      • Strycker L.A.
      • Chaumeton N.R.
      A cohort-sequential latent growth model of physical activity from ages 12 to 17 years.
      Ann Behav Med. 2007; 33: 80-89
      ,
      • Dzewaltowski D.A.
      • Karteroliotis K.
      • Welk G.
      • Johnston J.A.
      • Nyaronga D.
      • Estabrooks P.A.
      Measurement of self-efficacy and proxy efficacy for middle school youth physical activity.
      J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2007; 29: 310-332
      ,
      • Goran M.I.
      • Gover B.A.
      • Nagy T.R.
      • Johnson R.K.
      Developmental changes in energy expenditure and physical activity in children: evidence for a decline in physical activity in girls before puberty.
      Pediatrics. 1998; 101: 887-891
      ,
      • Hampson S.E.
      • Andrews J.A.
      • Peterson M.
      • Duncan S.C.
      A cognitive–behavioral mechanism leading to adolescent obesity: children's social images and physical activity.
      Ann Behav Med. 2007; 34: 287-294
      ,
      • Kahn J.A.
      • Huang B.
      • Gillman M.W.
      • et al.
      Patterns and determinants of physical activity in U.S. adolescents.
      J Adolesc Health. 2008; 42: 369-377
      ,
      • McMurray R.G.
      • Harrell J.S.
      • Creighton D.
      • Wang Z.
      • Bangdiwala S.I.
      Influence of physical activity on change in weight status as children become adolescents.
      Int J Pediatr Obes. 2008; 3: 69-77
      ,
      • Morgan C.F.
      • Graser S.V.
      • Pan Grazi R.P.
      A prospective study of pedometer-determined physical activity and physical self-perceptions in children.
      Res Q Exerc Sport. 2008; 79: 133-140
      ,
      • Motl R.W.
      • Birnbaum A.S.
      • Kubik M.Y.
      • Dishman R.K.
      Naturally occurring changes in physical activity are inversely related to depressive symptoms during early adolescence.
      Psychosom Med. 2004; 66: 336-342
      ,
      • Motl R.W.
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Ward D.S.
      • et al.
      Comparison of barriers self-efficacy and perceived behavioral control for explaining physical activity across 1 year among adolescent girls.
      Health Psychol. 2005; 24: 106-111
      ,
      • Motl R.W.
      • McAuley E.
      • Birnbaum A.S.
      • Lytle L.A.
      Naturally occurring changes in time spent watching television are inversely related to frequency of physical activity during early adolescence.
      J Adolesc. 2006; 29: 19-32
      ,
      • Neumark-Sztainer D.
      • Story M.
      • Hannan P.J.
      • Tharp T.
      • Rex J.
      Factors associated with changes in physical activity: a cohort study of inactive adolescent girls.
      Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003; 157: 803-810
      ,
      • Robinson T.N.
      • Hammer L.D.
      • Killen J.D.
      • et al.
      Does television viewing increase obesity and reduce physical activity? Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses among adolescent girls.
      Pediatrics. 1993; 91: 273-280
      ,
      • Spadano J.L.
      • Bandini L.G.
      • Must A.
      • Dallal G.E.
      • Dietz W.H.
      Longitudinal changes in energy expenditure in girls from late childhood through midadolescence.
      Am J Clin Nutr. 2005; 81: 1102-1109
       Canada
      • Barnett T.A.
      • O'Loughlin J.
      • Paradis G.
      One- and two-year predictors of decline in physical activity among inner-city schoolchildren.
      Am J Prev Med. 2002; 23: 121-128
      ,
      • Bruner M.W.
      • Chad K.E.
      • Beattie-Flath J.A.
      • et al.
      Examination of physical activity in adolescents over the school year.
      Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2009; 21: 421-435
      ,
      • Crocker P.
      • Sabiston C.
      • Forrestor S.
      • Kowalski N.
      • Kowalski K.
      • McDonough M.
      Predicting change in physical activity, dietary restraint, and physique anxiety in adolescent girls: examining covariance in physical self-perceptions.
      Can J Public Health. 2003; 94: 332-337
      ,
      • Findlay L.C.
      • Garner R.E.
      • Kohen D.E.
      Children's organized physical activity patterns from childhood into adolescence.
      J Phys Act Health. 2009; 6: 708-715
      ,
      • Rhodes R.E.
      • Macdonald H.M.
      • McKay H.A.
      Predicting physical activity intention and behaviour among children in a longitudinal sample.
      Soc Sci Med. 2006; 62: 3146-3156
       Europe
      • Armstrong N.
      • Welsman J.R.
      • Kirby B.J.
      Longitudinal changes in 11–13-year-olds' physical activity.
      Acta Paediatr. 2000; 89: 775-780
      ,
      • Brodersen N.H.
      • Steptoe A.
      • Boniface D.R.
      • Wardle J.
      Trends in physical activity and sedentary behaviour in adolescence: ethnic and socioeconomic differences.
      Br J Sports Med. 2007; 41: 140-144
      ,
      • Corder K.
      • Van Sluijs E.M.F.
      • Ekelund U.
      • Jones A.P.
      • Griffin S.J.
      Changes in children's physical activity over 12 months: Longitudinal results from the SPEEDY study.
      Pediatrics. 2010; 126: e926-e935
      ,
      • de Bruijn G.J.
      • Kremers S.P.J.
      • Lensvelt-Mulders G.
      • de Vries H.
      • van Mechelen W.
      • Brug J.
      Modeling individual and physical environmental factors with adolescent physical activity.
      Am J Prev Med. 2006; 30: 507-512
      ,
      • Dovey S.M.
      Continuity and change in sporting and leisure time physical activities during adolescence.
      Br J Sports Med. 1998; 32: 53-57
      ,
      • Fuchs R.
      • Powell K.E.
      • Semmer N.K.
      • Dwyer J.H.
      • Lippert P.
      • Hoffmeister H.
      Patterns of physical activity among German adolescents: the Berlin–Bremen Study.
      Prev Med. 1988; 17: 746-763
      ,
      • Knowles A.-M.
      • Niven A.G.
      • Fawkner S.G.
      • Henretty J.M.
      A longitudinal examination of the influence of maturation on physical self-perceptions and the relationship with physical activity in early adolescent girls.
      J Adolesc. 2009; 32: 555-566
      ,
      • Motl R.W.
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Ward D.S.
      • et al.
      Comparison of barriers self-efficacy and perceived behavioral control for explaining physical activity across 1 year among adolescent girls.
      Health Psychol. 2005; 24: 106-111
      ,
      • Raudsepp L.
      • Neissaar I.
      • Kull M.
      Longitudinal stability of sedentary behaviors and physical activity during early adolescence.
      Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2008; 20: 251-262
      ,
      • Raudsepp L.
      • Viira R.
      Changes in physical activity in adolescent girls: a latent growth modelling approach.
      Acta Paediatr. 2008; 97: 647-652
      ,
      • Sagatun A.
      • Kolle E.
      • Anderssen S.A.
      • Thoresen M.
      • Sogaard A.J.
      Three-year follow-up of physical activity in Norwegian youth from two ethnic groups: associations with socio-demographic factors.
      BMC Public Health. 2008; 8: 419
      ,
      • Sigmund E.
      • Sigmundová D.
      • El Ansari W.
      Changes in physical activity in pre-schoolers and first-grade children: longitudinal study in the Czech Republic.
      Child Care Health Dev. 2009; 35: 376-382
       Australia
      • Ball K.
      • Cleland V.J.
      • Timperio A.F.
      • Salmon J.
      • Crawford D.A.
      Socioeconomic position and children's physical activity and sedentary behaviors: longitudinal findings from the CLAN Study.
      J Phys Act Health. 2009; 6: 289-298
      ,
      • Carver A.
      • Timperio A.
      • Hesketh K.
      • Crawford D.
      Are safety-related features of the road environment associated with smaller declines in physical activity among youth?.
      J Urban Health. 2010; 87: 29-43
      ,
      • Crawford D.
      • Cleland V.
      • Timperio A.
      • et al.
      The longitudinal influence of home and neighbourhood environments on children's body mass index and physical activity over 5 years: the CLAN study.
      Int J Obes. 2010; 34: 1177-1187
       Hong Kong
      • Callaghan P.
      • Khalil E.
      • Morres I.
      A prospective evaluation of the Transtheoretical Model of Change applied to exercise in young people.
      Int J Nurs Stud. 2010; 47: 3-12
      Physical activity measurement
       Self-report
      • Garcia A.W.
      • Pender N.J.
      • Antonakos C.L.
      • Ronis D.L.
      Changes in physical activity beliefs and behaviors of boys and girls across the transition to junior high school.
      J Adolesc Health. 1998; 22: 394-402
      ,
      • Alderman B.L.
      • Benham-Deal T.B.
      • Jenkins J.M.
      Change in parental influence on children's physical activity over time.
      J Phys Act Health. 2010; 7: 60-67
      ,
      • Anderson D.F.
      • Lorenz F.O.
      • Pease D.G.
      La prediction de la pratique sportive actuelle a partir du sexe, de la pratique passee et des attitudes chez des enfants: une analyse longitudinale.
      Sociol Sport J. 1986; 3 ([Prediction of present participation from children's gender, past participation, and attitudes: a longitudinal analysis]): 101-111
      ,
      • Barnett T.A.
      • O'Loughlin J.
      • Paradis G.
      One- and two-year predictors of decline in physical activity among inner-city schoolchildren.
      Am J Prev Med. 2002; 23: 121-128
      ,
      • Bauer K.W.
      • Nelson M.C.
      • Boutelle K.N.
      • Neumark-Sztainer D.
      Parental influences on adolescents' physical activity and sedentary behavior: longitudinal findings from Project EAT-II.
      Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2008; 5: 12
      ,
      • Brodersen N.H.
      • Steptoe A.
      • Boniface D.R.
      • Wardle J.
      Trends in physical activity and sedentary behaviour in adolescence: ethnic and socioeconomic differences.
      Br J Sports Med. 2007; 41: 140-144
      ,
      • Butcher J.
      • Sallis J.F.
      • McKenzie T.L.
      • Alcaraz J.E.
      A longitudinal study of children's participation in organized sport and instructional programs.
      Avante. 2001; 7: 86-96
      ,
      • Callaghan P.
      • Khalil E.
      • Morres I.
      A prospective evaluation of the Transtheoretical Model of Change applied to exercise in young people.
      Int J Nurs Stud. 2010; 47: 3-12
      ,
      • Crocker P.
      • Sabiston C.
      • Forrestor S.
      • Kowalski N.
      • Kowalski K.
      • McDonough M.
      Predicting change in physical activity, dietary restraint, and physique anxiety in adolescent girls: examining covariance in physical self-perceptions.
      Can J Public Health. 2003; 94: 332-337
      ,
      • de Bruijn G.J.
      • Kremers S.P.J.
      • Lensvelt-Mulders G.
      • de Vries H.
      • van Mechelen W.
      • Brug J.
      Modeling individual and physical environmental factors with adolescent physical activity.
      Am J Prev Med. 2006; 30: 507-512
      ,
      • DiLorenzo T.M.
      • Stucky-Ropp R.C.
      • Vander Wal J.S.
      • Gotham H.J.
      Determinants of exercise among children II. A longitudinal analysis.
      Prev Med. 1998; 27: 470-477
      ,
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Saunders R.P.
      • Felton G.
      • Ward D.S.
      • Dowda M.
      • Pate R.R.
      Goals and intentions mediate efficacy beliefs and declining physical activity in high school girls.
      Am J Prev Med. 2006; 31: 475-483
      ,
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Saunders R.P.
      • Motl R.W.
      • Dowda M.
      • Pate R.R.
      Self-efficacy moderates the relation between declines in physical activity and perceived social support in high school girls.
      J Pediatr Psychol. 2009; 34: 441-451
      ,
      • Dovey S.M.
      Continuity and change in sporting and leisure time physical activities during adolescence.
      Br J Sports Med. 1998; 32: 53-57
      ,
      • Dowda M.
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Pfeiffer K.A.
      • Pate R.R.
      Family support for physical activity in girls from 8th to 12th grade in South Carolina.
      Prev Med. 2007; 44: 153-159
      ,
      • Dzewaltowski D.A.
      • Karteroliotis K.
      • Welk G.
      • Johnston J.A.
      • Nyaronga D.
      • Estabrooks P.A.
      Measurement of self-efficacy and proxy efficacy for middle school youth physical activity.
      J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2007; 29: 310-332
      ,
      • Findlay L.C.
      • Garner R.E.
      • Kohen D.E.
      Children's organized physical activity patterns from childhood into adolescence.
      J Phys Act Health. 2009; 6: 708-715
      ,
      • Fuchs R.
      • Powell K.E.
      • Semmer N.K.
      • Dwyer J.H.
      • Lippert P.
      • Hoffmeister H.
      Patterns of physical activity among German adolescents: the Berlin–Bremen Study.
      Prev Med. 1988; 17: 746-763
      ,
      • Hampson S.E.
      • Andrews J.A.
      • Peterson M.
      • Duncan S.C.
      A cognitive–behavioral mechanism leading to adolescent obesity: children's social images and physical activity.
      Ann Behav Med. 2007; 34: 287-294
      ,
      • Kahn J.A.
      • Huang B.
      • Gillman M.W.
      • et al.
      Patterns and determinants of physical activity in U.S. adolescents.
      J Adolesc Health. 2008; 42: 369-377
      ,
      • Knowles A.-M.
      • Niven A.G.
      • Fawkner S.G.
      • Henretty J.M.
      A longitudinal examination of the influence of maturation on physical self-perceptions and the relationship with physical activity in early adolescent girls.
      J Adolesc. 2009; 32: 555-566
      ,
      • McMurray R.G.
      • Harrell J.S.
      • Creighton D.
      • Wang Z.
      • Bangdiwala S.I.
      Influence of physical activity on change in weight status as children become adolescents.
      Int J Pediatr Obes. 2008; 3: 69-77
      ,
      • Motl R.W.
      • Birnbaum A.S.
      • Kubik M.Y.
      • Dishman R.K.
      Naturally occurring changes in physical activity are inversely related to depressive symptoms during early adolescence.
      Psychosom Med. 2004; 66: 336-342
      ,
      • Motl R.W.
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Ward D.S.
      • et al.
      Comparison of barriers self-efficacy and perceived behavioral control for explaining physical activity across 1 year among adolescent girls.
      Health Psychol. 2005; 24: 106-111
      ,
      • Motl R.W.
      • McAuley E.
      • Birnbaum A.S.
      • Lytle L.A.
      Naturally occurring changes in time spent watching television are inversely related to frequency of physical activity during early adolescence.
      J Adolesc. 2006; 29: 19-32
      ,
      • Neumark-Sztainer D.
      • Story M.
      • Hannan P.J.
      • Tharp T.
      • Rex J.
      Factors associated with changes in physical activity: a cohort study of inactive adolescent girls.
      Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003; 157: 803-810
      ,
      • Raudsepp L.
      • Neissaar I.
      • Kull M.
      Longitudinal stability of sedentary behaviors and physical activity during early adolescence.
      Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2008; 20: 251-262
      ,
      • Raudsepp L.
      • Viira R.
      Changes in physical activity in adolescent girls: a latent growth modelling approach.
      Acta Paediatr. 2008; 97: 647-652
      ,
      • Rhodes R.E.
      • Macdonald H.M.
      • McKay H.A.
      Predicting physical activity intention and behaviour among children in a longitudinal sample.
      Soc Sci Med. 2006; 62: 3146-3156
      ,
      • Robinson T.N.
      • Hammer L.D.
      • Killen J.D.
      • et al.
      Does television viewing increase obesity and reduce physical activity? Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses among adolescent girls.
      Pediatrics. 1993; 91: 273-280
      ,
      • Viira R.
      • Raudsepp L.
      Psychosocial correlates of physical activity among seven through eight grades.
      J Hum Mov Stud. 2003; 44: 501-517
       Objective measures
      • Nader P.R.
      • Bradley R.H.
      • Houts R.M.
      • McRitchie S.L.
      • O'Brien M.
      Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity from ages 9 to 15 years.
      JAMA. 2008; 300: 295-305
      ,
      • Armstrong N.
      • Welsman J.R.
      • Kirby B.J.
      Longitudinal changes in 11–13-year-olds' physical activity.
      Acta Paediatr. 2000; 89: 775-780
      ,
      • Corder K.
      • Van Sluijs E.M.F.
      • Ekelund U.
      • Jones A.P.
      • Griffin S.J.
      Changes in children's physical activity over 12 months: Longitudinal results from the SPEEDY study.
      Pediatrics. 2010; 126: e926-e935
      ,
      • Goran M.I.
      • Gover B.A.
      • Nagy T.R.
      • Johnson R.K.
      Developmental changes in energy expenditure and physical activity in children: evidence for a decline in physical activity in girls before puberty.
      Pediatrics. 1998; 101: 887-891
      ,
      • Morgan C.F.
      • Graser S.V.
      • Pan Grazi R.P.
      A prospective study of pedometer-determined physical activity and physical self-perceptions in children.
      Res Q Exerc Sport. 2008; 79: 133-140
      ,
      • Sallis J.F.
      • Alcaraz J.E.
      • McKenzie T.L.
      • Hovell M.F.
      Predictors of change in children's physical activity over 20 months Variations by gender and level of adiposity.
      Am J Prev Med. 1999; 16: 222-229
       Both self-report and objective
      • Ball K.
      • Cleland V.J.
      • Timperio A.F.
      • Salmon J.
      • Crawford D.A.
      Socioeconomic position and children's physical activity and sedentary behaviors: longitudinal findings from the CLAN Study.
      J Phys Act Health. 2009; 6: 289-298
      ,
      • Bruner M.W.
      • Chad K.E.
      • Beattie-Flath J.A.
      • et al.
      Examination of physical activity in adolescents over the school year.
      Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2009; 21: 421-435
      ,
      • Carver A.
      • Timperio A.
      • Hesketh K.
      • Crawford D.
      Are safety-related features of the road environment associated with smaller declines in physical activity among youth?.
      J Urban Health. 2010; 87: 29-43
      ,
      • Crawford D.
      • Cleland V.
      • Timperio A.
      • et al.
      The longitudinal influence of home and neighbourhood environments on children's body mass index and physical activity over 5 years: the CLAN study.
      Int J Obes. 2010; 34: 1177-1187
      ,
      • Davison K.K.
      • Werder J.L.
      • Trost S.G.
      • Baker B.L.
      • Birch L.L.
      Why are early maturing girls less active? Links between pubertal development, psychological well-being, and physical activity among girls at ages 11 and 13.
      Soc Sci Med. 2007; 64: 2391-2404
      ,
      • Duncan S.C.
      • Duncan T.E.
      • Strycker L.A.
      • Chaumeton N.R.
      A cohort-sequential latent growth model of physical activity from ages 12 to 17 years.
      Ann Behav Med. 2007; 33: 80-89
      ,
      • Sagatun A.
      • Kolle E.
      • Anderssen S.A.
      • Thoresen M.
      • Sogaard A.J.
      Three-year follow-up of physical activity in Norwegian youth from two ethnic groups: associations with socio-demographic factors.
      BMC Public Health. 2008; 8: 419
      ,
      • Sigmund E.
      • Sigmundová D.
      • El Ansari W.
      Changes in physical activity in pre-schoolers and first-grade children: longitudinal study in the Czech Republic.
      Child Care Health Dev. 2009; 35: 376-382
      ,
      • Spadano J.L.
      • Bandini L.G.
      • Must A.
      • Dallal G.E.
      • Dietz W.H.
      Longitudinal changes in energy expenditure in girls from late childhood through midadolescence.
      Am J Clin Nutr. 2005; 81: 1102-1109
      Methodologic quality of the included studies (Quality Score 0–5)
       0–1
      • Anderson D.F.
      • Lorenz F.O.
      • Pease D.G.
      La prediction de la pratique sportive actuelle a partir du sexe, de la pratique passee et des attitudes chez des enfants: une analyse longitudinale.
      Sociol Sport J. 1986; 3 ([Prediction of present participation from children's gender, past participation, and attitudes: a longitudinal analysis]): 101-111
      ,
      • Bauer K.W.
      • Nelson M.C.
      • Boutelle K.N.
      • Neumark-Sztainer D.
      Parental influences on adolescents' physical activity and sedentary behavior: longitudinal findings from Project EAT-II.
      Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2008; 5: 12
      ,
      • Brodersen N.H.
      • Steptoe A.
      • Boniface D.R.
      • Wardle J.
      Trends in physical activity and sedentary behaviour in adolescence: ethnic and socioeconomic differences.
      Br J Sports Med. 2007; 41: 140-144
      ,
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Saunders R.P.
      • Felton G.
      • Ward D.S.
      • Dowda M.
      • Pate R.R.
      Goals and intentions mediate efficacy beliefs and declining physical activity in high school girls.
      Am J Prev Med. 2006; 31: 475-483
      ,
      • Duncan S.C.
      • Duncan T.E.
      • Strycker L.A.
      • Chaumeton N.R.
      A cohort-sequential latent growth model of physical activity from ages 12 to 17 years.
      Ann Behav Med. 2007; 33: 80-89
       2–3
      • Alderman B.L.
      • Benham-Deal T.B.
      • Jenkins J.M.
      Change in parental influence on children's physical activity over time.
      J Phys Act Health. 2010; 7: 60-67
      ,
      • Ball K.
      • Cleland V.J.
      • Timperio A.F.
      • Salmon J.
      • Crawford D.A.
      Socioeconomic position and children's physical activity and sedentary behaviors: longitudinal findings from the CLAN Study.
      J Phys Act Health. 2009; 6: 289-298
      ,
      • Barnett T.A.
      • O'Loughlin J.
      • Paradis G.
      One- and two-year predictors of decline in physical activity among inner-city schoolchildren.
      Am J Prev Med. 2002; 23: 121-128
      ,
      • Butcher J.
      • Sallis J.F.
      • McKenzie T.L.
      • Alcaraz J.E.
      A longitudinal study of children's participation in organized sport and instructional programs.
      Avante. 2001; 7: 86-96
      ,
      • Callaghan P.
      • Khalil E.
      • Morres I.
      A prospective evaluation of the Transtheoretical Model of Change applied to exercise in young people.
      Int J Nurs Stud. 2010; 47: 3-12
      ,
      • Carver A.
      • Timperio A.
      • Hesketh K.
      • Crawford D.
      Are safety-related features of the road environment associated with smaller declines in physical activity among youth?.
      J Urban Health. 2010; 87: 29-43
      ,
      • Crocker P.
      • Sabiston C.
      • Forrestor S.
      • Kowalski N.
      • Kowalski K.
      • McDonough M.
      Predicting change in physical activity, dietary restraint, and physique anxiety in adolescent girls: examining covariance in physical self-perceptions.
      Can J Public Health. 2003; 94: 332-337
      ,
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Saunders R.P.
      • Motl R.W.
      • Dowda M.
      • Pate R.R.
      Self-efficacy moderates the relation between declines in physical activity and perceived social support in high school girls.
      J Pediatr Psychol. 2009; 34: 441-451
      ,
      • Dowda M.
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Pfeiffer K.A.
      • Pate R.R.
      Family support for physical activity in girls from 8th to 12th grade in South Carolina.
      Prev Med. 2007; 44: 153-159
      ,
      • Dzewaltowski D.A.
      • Karteroliotis K.
      • Welk G.
      • Johnston J.A.
      • Nyaronga D.
      • Estabrooks P.A.
      Measurement of self-efficacy and proxy efficacy for middle school youth physical activity.
      J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2007; 29: 310-332
      ,
      • Findlay L.C.
      • Garner R.E.
      • Kohen D.E.
      Children's organized physical activity patterns from childhood into adolescence.
      J Phys Act Health. 2009; 6: 708-715
      ,
      • Fuchs R.
      • Powell K.E.
      • Semmer N.K.
      • Dwyer J.H.
      • Lippert P.
      • Hoffmeister H.
      Patterns of physical activity among German adolescents: the Berlin–Bremen Study.
      Prev Med. 1988; 17: 746-763
      ,
      • Hampson S.E.
      • Andrews J.A.
      • Peterson M.
      • Duncan S.C.
      A cognitive–behavioral mechanism leading to adolescent obesity: children's social images and physical activity.
      Ann Behav Med. 2007; 34: 287-294
      ,
      • Kahn J.A.
      • Huang B.
      • Gillman M.W.
      • et al.
      Patterns and determinants of physical activity in U.S. adolescents.
      J Adolesc Health. 2008; 42: 369-377
      ,
      • McMurray R.G.
      • Harrell J.S.
      • Creighton D.
      • Wang Z.
      • Bangdiwala S.I.
      Influence of physical activity on change in weight status as children become adolescents.
      Int J Pediatr Obes. 2008; 3: 69-77
      ,
      • Morgan C.F.
      • Graser S.V.
      • Pan Grazi R.P.
      A prospective study of pedometer-determined physical activity and physical self-perceptions in children.
      Res Q Exerc Sport. 2008; 79: 133-140
      ,
      • Motl R.W.
      • Birnbaum A.S.
      • Kubik M.Y.
      • Dishman R.K.
      Naturally occurring changes in physical activity are inversely related to depressive symptoms during early adolescence.
      Psychosom Med. 2004; 66: 336-342
      ,
      • Motl R.W.
      • Dishman R.K.
      • Ward D.S.
      • et al.
      Comparison of barriers self-efficacy and perceived behavioral control for explaining physical activity across 1 year among adolescent girls.
      Health Psychol. 2005; 24: 106-111
      ,
      • Raudsepp L.
      • Neissaar I.
      • Kull M.
      Longitudinal stability of sedentary behaviors and physical activity during early adolescence.
      Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2008; 20: 251-262
      ,
      • Raudsepp L.
      • Viira R.
      Changes in physical activity in adolescent girls: a latent growth modelling approach.
      Acta Paediatr. 2008; 97: 647-652
      ,
      • Sallis J.F.
      • Alcaraz J.E.
      • McKenzie T.L.
      • Hovell M.F.
      Predictors of change in children's physical activity over 20 months Variations by gender and level of adiposity.
      Am J Prev Med. 1999; 16: 222-229
       4–5
      • Nader P.R.
      • Bradley R.H.
      • Houts R.M.
      • McRitchie S.L.
      • O'Brien M.
      Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity from ages 9 to 15 years.
      JAMA. 2008; 300: 295-305
      ,
      • Garcia A.W.
      • Pender N.J.
      • Antonakos C.L.
      • Ronis D.L.
      Changes in physical activity beliefs and behaviors of boys and girls across the transition to junior high school.
      J Adolesc Health. 1998; 22: 394-402
      ,
      • Armstrong N.
      • Welsman J.R.
      • Kirby B.J.
      Longitudinal changes in 11–13-year-olds' physical activity.
      Acta Paediatr. 2000; 89: 775-780
      ,
      • Corder K.
      • Van Sluijs E.M.F.
      • Ekelund U.
      • Jones A.P.
      • Griffin S.J.
      Changes in children's physical activity over 12 months: Longitudinal results from the SPEEDY study.
      Pediatrics. 2010; 126: e926-e935
      ,
      • Crawford D.
      • Cleland V.
      • Timperio A.
      • et al.
      The longitudinal influence of home and neighbourhood environments on children's body mass index and physical activity over 5 years: the CLAN study.
      Int J Obes. 2010; 34: 1177-1187
      ,
      • Davison K.K.
      • Werder J.L.
      • Trost S.G.
      • Baker B.L.
      • Birch L.L.
      Why are early maturing girls less active? Links between pubertal development, psychological well-being, and physical activity among girls at ages 11 and 13.
      Soc Sci Med. 2007; 64: 2391-2404
      ,
      • de Bruijn G.J.
      • Kremers S.P.J.
      • Lensvelt-Mulders G.
      • de Vries H.
      • van Mechelen W.
      • Brug J.
      Modeling individual and physical environmental factors with adolescent physical activity.
      Am J Prev Med. 2006; 30: 507-512
      ,
      • Dovey S.M.
      Continuity and change in sporting and leisure time physical activities during adolescence.
      Br J Sports Med. 1998; 32: 53-57
      ,
      • Knowles A.-M.
      • Niven A.G.
      • Fawkner S.G.
      • Henretty J.M.
      A longitudinal examination of the influence of maturation on physical self-perceptions and the relationship with physical activity in early adolescent girls.
      J Adolesc. 2009; 32: 555-566
      ,
      • Motl R.W.
      • McAuley E.
      • Birnbaum A.S.
      • Lytle L.A.
      Naturally occurring changes in time spent watching television are inversely related to frequency of physical activity during early adolescence.
      J Adolesc. 2006; 29: 19-32
      ,
      • Neumark-Sztainer D.
      • Story M.
      • Hannan P.J.
      • Tharp T.
      • Rex J.
      Factors associated with changes in physical activity: a cohort study of inactive adolescent girls.
      Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003; 157: 803-810
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