Advertisement
Research Article| Volume 45, ISSUE 5, P551-559, November 2013

Solid Fat and Added Sugar Intake Among U.S. Children

The Role of Stores, Schools, and Fast Food, 1994–2010

      Background

      Little is known about the role of location in U.S. children’s excess intake of energy from solid fat and added sugar, collectively referred to as SoFAS.

      Purpose

      The goal of this study was to compare the SoFAS content of foods consumed by children from stores, schools, and fast-food restaurants and to determine whether trends from 1994 to 2010 differ across these locations.

      Methods

      Children aged 2–18 years (N=22,103) from five nationally representative surveys of dietary intake from 1994 to 2010 were studied. SoFAS content was compared across locations for total intake and key foods. Regression models were used to test and compare linear trends across locations. Data were analyzed in 2012.

      Results

      The mean percentage of total energy intake consumed from each location that was provided by SoFAS remained above recommendations, despite significant improvements between 1994 and 2010 at stores (1994, 38.3%; 2004, 33.2%); schools (1994, 38.7%; 2004, 31.2%); and fast-food restaurants (1994, 34.6%; 2004, 34.6%). For each key food, SoFAS content decreased significantly at stores and schools, yet progress at schools was comparatively slower. Milk was higher in SoFAS at schools compared to stores because of shifts toward flavored milk at schools. Schools provided french fries that were higher in solid fat than store-bought versions and pizza that was not significantly different in SoFAS content than fast-food pizza. However, schools made significantly greater progress for sugar-sweetened beverages, as lower-sugar beverages replaced regular sodas. Key fast foods showed little improvement.

      Conclusions

      These findings can inform future strategies targeted to the specific locations and foods where continued progress is needed to reduce children’s SoFAS consumption.
      To read this article in full you will need to make a payment

      Purchase one-time access:

      Academic & Personal: 24 hour online accessCorporate R&D Professionals: 24 hour online access
      One-time access price info
      • For academic or personal research use, select 'Academic and Personal'
      • For corporate R&D use, select 'Corporate R&D Professionals'

      Subscribe:

      Subscribe to American Journal of Preventive Medicine
      Already a print subscriber? Claim online access
      Already an online subscriber? Sign in
      Institutional Access: Sign in to ScienceDirect

      References

        • Ogden C.L.
        • Carroll M.D.
        • Kit B.K.
        • Flegal K.M.
        Prevalence of obesity and trends in body mass index among U.S. children and adolescents, 1999–2010.
        JAMA. 2012; 307: 483-490
        • U.S. Department of Agriculture
        DHHS. Dietary guidelines for Americans, 2010.
        U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC2010
        • Taveras E.M.
        • Berkey C.S.
        • Rifas-Shiman S.L.
        • et al.
        Association of consumption of fried food away from home with body mass index and diet quality in older children and adolescents.
        Pediatrics. 2005; 116: e518-e524
        • Kant A.K.
        Reported consumption of low-nutrient-density foods by American children and adolescents: nutritional and health correlates, NHANES III, 1988 to 1994.
        Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003; 157: 789-796
        • Templeton S.B.
        • Marlette M.A.
        • Panemangalore M.
        Competitive foods increase the intake of energy and decrease the intake of certain nutrients by adolescents consuming school lunch.
        J Am Diet Assoc. 2005; 105: 215-220
        • Kirkpatrick S.I.
        • Dodd K.W.
        • Reedy J.
        • Krebs-Smith S.M.
        Income and race/ethnicity are associated with adherence to food-based dietary guidance among U.S. adults and children.
        J Acad Nutr Diet. 2012; 112 (624.e–35.e6)
        • Krebs-Smith S.M.
        • Guenther P.M.
        • Subar A.F.
        • Kirkpatrick S.I.
        • Dodd K.W.
        Americans do not meet federal dietary recommendations.
        J Nutr. 2010; 140: 1832-1838
        • Reedy J.
        • Krebs-Smith S.M.
        Dietary sources of energy, solid fats, and added sugars among children and adolescents in the U.S..
        J Am Diet Assoc. 2010; 110: 1477-1484
        • Slining M.M.
        • Popkin B.M.
        Trends in intakes and sources of solid fats and added sugars among U.S. children and adolescents: 1994–2010.
        Pediatr Obes. 2013; 8: 307-324
        • Guthrie J.F.
        • Lin B.H.
        • Frazao E.
        Role of food prepared away from home in the American diet, 1977-78 versus 1994-96: changes and consequences.
        J Nutr Educ Behav. 2002; 34: 140-150
        • Lin B.H.
        • Guthrie J.
        Nutritional quality of food prepared at home and away from home, 1977–2008. Economic Information Bulletin Number 105.
        U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 2012;
        • Serrano E.L.
        • Jedda V.B.
        Comparison of fast-food and non-fast-food children’s menu items.
        J Nutr Educ Behav. 2009; 41: 132-137
        • Harris J.L.
        • Schwartz M.B.
        • Brownell K.D.
        Fast food FACTS: evaluating fast food nutrition and marketing to youth.
        Rudd Center for Food Policy and Obesity. 2010;
        • Crepinsek M.K.
        • Gordon A.R.
        • McKinney P.M.
        • Condon E.M.
        • Wilson A.
        Meals offered and served in U.S. public schools: do they meet nutrient standards?.
        J Am Diet Assoc. 2009; 109: S31-S43
        • O’Toole T.P.
        • Anderson S.
        • Miller C.
        • Guthrie J.
        Nutrition services and foods and beverages available at school: results from the School Health Policies and Programs Study 2006.
        J Sch Health. 2007; 77: 500-521
        • Slining M.M.
        • Ng S.W.
        • Popkin B.M.
        Food companies’ calorie-reduction pledges to improve U.S. diet.
        Am J Prev Med. 2013; 44: 174-184
        • Healthy Weight Commitment Foundation
        Food and beverage manufacturers pledging to reduce annual calories by.
        1.5 trillion by 2015. 2010;
      1. Walmart. Walmart launches major initiative to make food healthier and healthier food more affordable. 2011. news.walmart.com/news-archive/2011/01/20/walmart-launches-major-initiative-to-make-food-healthier-healthier-food-more-affordable.

      2. Food labeling: trans fatty acids in nutrition labeling, nutrient content claims, and health claims, 21 CFR Part 101 (2003).

      3. Healthy Meals for Healthy Americans Act of 1994, Public Law 103–448 (1994).

      4. Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization Act of 2004, Public Law 108–265 (2004).

      5. American Beverage Association. Alliance school beverage guidelines final progress report. 2010. www.healthiergeneration.org/_asset/qm41p9/SBG-FINAL-PROGRESS-REPORT-March-2010.pdf.

        • Roberto C.A.
        • Schwartz M.B.
        • Brownell K.D.
        Rationale and evidence for menu-labeling legislation.
        Am J Prev Med. 2009; 37: 546-551
        • Lin B.-H.
        • Frazao E.
        • Guthrie J.
        Away-from-home foods increasingly important to quality of American diet.
        U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 1999;
      6. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Food Surveys Research Group. Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals 1994-96, 1998 and Diet and Health Knowledge Survey 1994-96. www.ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?docid=14531.

      7. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Food Surveys Research Group, and DHHS, CDC, National Center for Health Statistics. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2004. www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/nhanes2003-2004/nhanes03_04.htm.

      8. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Food Surveys Research Group, and DHHS, CDC, National Center for Health Statistics. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2005-2006. www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/nhanes2005-2006/nhanes05_06.htm.

      9. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Food Surveys Research Group, and DHHS, CDC, National Center for Health Statistics. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2007-2008. www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/nhanes2007-2008/nhanes07_08.htm.

      10. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Food Surveys Research Group, and DHHS, CDC, National Center for Health Statistics. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2009-2010. www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/nhanes2009-2010/nhanes09_10.htm.

      11. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. Food survey technical databases. www.ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?docid=7826.

      12. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research Service. USDA food and nutrient database for dietary studies. www.ars.usda.gov/services/docs.htm?docid=12089.

        • Friday J.E.
        • Bowman S.A.
        MyPyramid Equivalents Database for USDA survey food codes, 1994–2002 version 1.0.
        U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Community Nutrition Research Group, Beltsville MD2006
        • Bowman S.
        • Friday J.
        • Moshfegh A.
        MyPyramid Equivalents Database, 2.0 for USDA Survey Foods, 2003-2004.
        U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Food Surveys Research Group, Beltsville MD2008
        • Welsh J.A.
        • Sharma A.J.
        • Grellinger L.
        • Vos M.B.
        Consumption of added sugars is decreasing in the U.S..
        Am J Clin Nutr. 2011; 94: 726-734
      13. National Cancer Institute, U.S. NIH. Documentation for the Pyramid Servings Database for NHANES III. 2010. riskfactor.cancer.gov/pyramid/documentation/.

        • Koegel K.
        • Kuczynski K.
        Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion addendum to the MyPyramid Equivalents Database 2.0.
        USDA Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion, Nutrition Guidance and Analysis Division, Alexandria VA2011
        • Poti J.M.
        • Slining M.M.
        • Popkin B.M.
        Where are kids getting their empty calories? Stores, schools, and fast food restaurants each play an important role in empty calorie intake among US children in 2009–2010.
        J Acad Nutr Diet. 2013; (In press)
        • Poti J.M.
        • Popkin B.M.
        Trends in energy intake among U.S. children by eating location and food source, 1977-2006.
        J Am Diet Assoc. 2011; 111: 1156-1164
        • Gordon A.R.
        • Crepinsek M.K.
        • Briefel R.R.
        • Clark M.A.
        • Fox M.K.
        The Third School Nutrition Dietary Assessment Study: summary and implications.
        J Am Diet Assoc. 2009; 109: S129-S135
        • Kraak V.I.
        • Story M.
        • Wartella E.A.
        Government and school progress to promote a healthful diet to American children and adolescents: a comprehensive review of the available evidence.
        Am J Prev Med. 2012; 42: 250-262
        • Condon E.M.
        • Crepinsek M.K.
        • Fox M.K.
        School meals: types of foods offered to and consumed by children at lunch and breakfast.
        J Am Diet Assoc. 2009; 109: S67-S78
        • Briefel R.R.
        • Crepinsek M.K.
        • Cabili C.
        • Wilson A.
        • Gleason P.M.
        School food environments and practices affect dietary behaviors of U.S. public school children.
        J Am Diet Assoc. 2009; 109: S91-S107
        • Turner L.
        • Chaloupka F.J.
        Slow progress in changing the school food environment: nationally representative results from public and private elementary schools.
        J Acad Nutr Diet. 2012; 112: 1380-1389
        • Delva J.
        • O’Malley P.M.
        • Johnston L.D.
        Availability of more-healthy and less-healthy food choices in American schools: a national study of grade, racial/ethnic, and socioeconomic differences.
        Am J Prev Med. 2007; 33: S226-S239
        • Finkelstein D.M.
        • Hill E.L.
        • Whitaker R.C.
        School food environments and policies in U.S. public schools.
        Pediatrics. 2008; 122: e251-e259
        • Johnston L.
        • O’Malley P.
        • Terry-McElrath Y.
        • Colabianchi N.
        School policies and practices to improve health and prevent obesity: National Secondary School Survey results, school years 2006–07 and 2007–08.
        Vol. 1. Bridging the Gap, Institute for Social Research, Ann Arbor MI2011
        • Larson N.
        • Story M.
        Are “competitive foods” sold at school making our children fat?.
        Health Aff (Millwood). 2010; 29: 430-435
      14. Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010, Public Law No. 111-296 (2010).

        • French S.A.
        • Story M.
        Commentary on Nutrition Standards In The National School Lunch and Breakfast Programs.
        JAMA Pediatr. 2013; 167: 8-9
        • Food and Nutrition Service, U.S.
        Department of Agriculture. Nutrition standards in the National School Lunch and School Breakfast Programs.
        Final rule. Fed Regist. 2012; 77: 4088-4167
        • Bauer K.W.
        • Hearst M.O.
        • Earnest A.A.
        • French S.A.
        • Oakes J.M.
        • Harnack L.J.
        Energy content of U.S. fast-food restaurant offerings: 14-year trends.
        Am J Prev Med. 2012; 43: 490-497
        • Wu H.W.
        • Sturm R.
        What’s on the menu? A review of the energy and nutritional content of U.S. chain restaurant menus.
        Public Health Nutr. 2013; 16: 87-96
        • O’Donnell S.I.
        • Hoerr S.L.
        • Mendoza J.A.
        • Tsuei Goh E.
        Nutrient quality of fast food kids meals.
        Am J Clin Nutr. 2008; 88: 1388-1395
        • Kirkpatrick S.I.
        • Reedy J.
        • Kahle L.L.
        • Harris J.L.
        • Ohri-Vachaspati P.
        • Krebs-Smith S.M.
        Fast-food menu offerings vary in dietary quality, but are consistently poor.
        Public Health Nutr. 2013; : 1-8
        • Burrows T.L.
        • Martin R.J.
        • Collins C.E.
        A systematic review of the validity of dietary assessment methods in children when compared with the method of doubly labeled water.
        J Am Diet Assoc. 2010; 110: 1501-1510
        • Bornhorst C.
        • Huybrechts I.
        • Ahrens W.
        • et al.
        IDEFICS consortium. Prevalence and determinants of misreporting among European children in proxy-reported 24 h dietary recalls.
        Br J Nutr. 2013; 109: 1257-1265
        • Larson N.
        • Story M.
        A review of environmental influences on food choices.
        Ann Behav Med. 2009; 38: S56-S73
        • Bodor J.N.
        • Rose D.
        • Farley T.A.
        • Swalm C.
        • Scott S.K.
        Neighbourhood fruit and vegetable availability and consumption: the role of small food stores in an urban environment.
        Public Health Nutr. 2008; 11: 413-420
        • Cohen D.A.
        • Ghosh-Dastidar B.
        • Beckman R.
        • et al.
        Adolescent girls’ most common source of junk food away from home.
        Health Place. 2012; 18: 963-970
        • Briefel R.R.
        • Wilson A.
        • Gleason P.M.
        Consumption of low-nutrient, energy-dense foods and beverages at school, home, and other locations among school lunch participants and nonparticipants.
        J Am Diet Assoc. 2009; 109: S79-S90
        • Taber D.R.
        • Chriqui J.F.
        • Chaloupka F.J.
        Differences in nutrient intake associated with state laws regarding fat, sugar, and caloric content of competitive foods.
        Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2012; 166: 452-458